Exchange rate and transport cost sensitivities of bilateral freight flows between the US and China

This paper explores the long-run impacts of gross domestic product, exchange rate, and transport costs on bilateral air and ocean freight flows between the US and China. The study employs a cointegration framework by using export and import data over the period of 2003:Q1-2014:Q2. Results show that gross domestic product is the key determinant of bilateral freight flows, indicating that real income of a trading partner is a driving force of the bilateral freight flows between the US and China. In examining the sensitivities of the bilateral trade flows, air freight flows are found to be more responsive to a real income change than ocean freight flows. The bilateral exchange rate is a significant factor affecting the freight flows from China to the US, suggesting that a US dollar appreciation against the Chinese yuan increases the inflows of Chinese commodities to the US. The impacts of the bilateral exchange rate and transport cost are found to vary at industry and commodity levels. These findings support the importance of employing disaggregate data in the bilateral freight flow analysis.     

The impact of transport policies on railroad intermodal freight competitiveness – The case of Belgium

This paper discusses the impact of three freight transport policies aiming to promote railroad intermodal transport in Europe, and examines the case of Belgium as a testing ground. These policies consist in subsidizing intermodal transport operations (such as in Belgium, to stimulate rail transport), internalizing external costs (as recommended by the European Union in order to foster cleaner modes), and adopting a system perspective when optimizing the location of inland intermodal terminals. The study proposes an innovative mixed integer intermodal freight location-allocation model based on hub-location theory and deals with non-linear transport costs in order to replicate economies of distance. Our analysis suggests that subsidizing has a significant impact on the volumes transported by intermodal transport, and, to a lesser extent, that optimizing terminal location increases the competitiveness of intermodal transport. On the other hand, according to our assumptions, internalizing external costs can negatively impact the promotion of intermodality. This finding indicates that innovative last-mile transports are needed in order to reduce the external impacts of drayage operations.     

Competitiveness and macroeconomic impacts of reduced wait times at U.S. land freight border crossings

We analyze the macroeconomic and trade impacts of reducing wait times by adding one customs officer at each of the twelve major land freight crossings of the U.S. The change in wait time stemming from staffing changes is first estimated on the basis of primary data and then translated into changes in freight costs through a logistical model. The transportation cost changes are then fed into a multi-country computable general equilibrium model. We find that adding one customs officer at each land border crossing would, on average per crossing, generate an increase in U.S. GDP of $350 thousand and 3.58 additional jobs.     

The acceptability of road pricing in Vienna: the preference patterns of car drivers

The acceptability of road pricing has attracted considerable attention among researchers over the last decade, as is evident in the amount of literature about transport and environmental economics. The general conclusion from these studies has been that there is low acceptability for road pricing among car users. In this paper, we add more knowledge to the existing literature by conducting an acceptability study of road pricing in Vienna, where such a study has never been conducted before. We used a replication study approach where a previous approach used in the EU research project AFFORD (acceptability of fiscal and financial measures and organisational requirements for demand management) was replicated for Vienna and further supplemented with a conjoint analysis. In order to examining whether the Vienna study confirms previous findings. We investigated the acceptability of two concrete policy packages factors influencing this acceptability, and preference patterns that can be used in designing a road pricing policy for Vienna. The survey reveals a higher acceptability if road pricing schemes lead to perceived personal benefits. According to the multivariate analyses, the “personal outcome expectations”, “social norm” and “perceived effectiveness” variables account for more than 50 % of the criterion variance and therefore these are the most influential factors. Road pricing schemes can be an effective transport management instrument for a city particularly if they are associated with direct investment in public transport and public infrastructure. Thus, personal benefits can be perceived more easily and direct effects can be expected.     

Transport deregulation and cross‐border trucking in North America

Internationally, recent years have seen a spread of deregulatory policies with respect to transport. Equally, transport movements across national boundaries have expanded as trade has grown. Despite these two quite noticeable trends comparatively little has been written on the problems that are created for cross‐border traffic as the result of differential changes in national regulatory policies. This paper is concerned with looking specifically at what has happened in the context of road freight transport movements across the U.S.‐Canadian border and the wider (especially for the formulation of a Common Transport Policy for the EEC) lessons which can be learned from it.     

The European freight railway system as a hub-and-spoke network

This paper addresses a hub-and-spoke network problem for railroad freight, where a central planner is to find transport routes, frequency of service, length of trains to be used, and transportation volume. Hub-and-spoke networks, often found in air freight, have not been favoured by railways in the past. Such a structure could be profitable, however, if there exist concentrated freight flows on some service links. We formulate a linear integer programming model whose objective function includes not only the typical operational cost, but also cost due to the transit time spent by freight in the network. We then develop heuristic algorithms to solve large scale instances occurring in rail freight systems in France plus Italy; Germany; and a 10-country European network. By assuming that every node is equipped with consolidation capability, we let the final solution naturally reveal potential hub locations, the impact of several of which is studied by sensitivity analysis.     

基于MSP430的铁路货运车厢温湿度信息采集系统设计

文章设计了基于MSP430的铁路货运车厢温湿度信息采集系统,介绍了该系统软件和硬件的结构组成与功能原理,指出该系统具有处理速度快、实时性强、精确度和集成度高、携带方便等优点,可为铁路货运系统提供基础数据,并能提高铁路货物运输的安全性和质量,有着广泛的应用前景。     

Improving the energy efficiency of freight in the United States through commodity-based analysis: justification and implementation

Efforts to reduce energy use in freight transportation usually center around “mode-based” approaches, namely improving the energy efficiency of energy intensive modes, such as truck, and shifting more freight to energy efficient modes, such as rail. In the first part of this paper we review the recent trends and future prospects for these mode-based approaches, finding that despite substantial improvement in the technological efficiency of freight modes and robust growth in the use of intermodal rail since 1980, total freight energy use across all modes in the US has grown by approximately 33%, with proportional growth in carbon emissions. In the second part of the paper we propose use of a “commodity-based” approach, in which freight energy use is disaggregated by contribution of major commodity groups, in order to support efficiency improvement at the commodity level. Two potential applications of the commodity based approach, namely (1) life cycle analysis of energy use for major commodity groups and (2) spatial analysis of freight patterns, are demonstrated using the 1993 US Commodity Flow Survey data. Results of these preliminary findings suggest that commodity groups vary widely in the ratio of energy use in production to energy use in transport, and that for many commodity groups, there may be substantial opportunities for saving energy by redistributing flow patterns. Through development of the commodity-based approach, we also identify the collaborative involvement of shippers and carriers as a key point in improving energy efficiency, since it can be used to both make the mode-based approach more effective and address new issues such as the underlying growth in tonne-km. Benefits for air quality and other transportation issues are also discussed.     

The impact of terminal handling charges on overall shipping charges: an empirical study

Before the introduction of terminal handling charges (THCs), traditional freight rates included both ocean freight charges and terminal charges at ports. Since the introduction of THCs in 1991, the freight rate has become a “port-to-port” charge that covers only the sea leg, while the on-shore costs of using the container terminals are charged separately as THCs. Although both THCs and freight rates are collectively set by conferences, in this study we argue that the former are easier to enforce because they are invariant to other attributes such as haulage distance, inland transport services and types of commodity being shipped. This argument is consistent with the empirical findings from this study that suggest the separation of ocean freight rates from terminal charges has increased the overall shipping charges. In addition, we find that THCs affect the Hong Kong container handling industry by lowering its throughput.     

A freight transport price optimization model with multi bounded-rational customers

Transportation - To analyze the effect of customer enterprises’ behavior on freight transport markets with various products, a bi-level programming model for freight pricing is developed. The...     

Amtrak,the attempt to renew U.S. rail service

The decline of railway passenger train patronage and the deterioration of service in the United States have led the U.S. Government to assume control over the operation of trains via a quasi‐federal corporation called “Amtrak,” but some basic causes of the decline remain and new problems will arise as a result of this action.

Two results of the neglect to assess external costs against the various transport modes is an unbalance in favor of those with the higher external costs and the continued, seemingly fundamental, unprofitability of railway passenger service, which exists even for equipment that operates at capacity!

Some way of collecting external costs will have to be found, and the problems created by the new intrusion of the U.S. Government into transport will have to be faced.     

Airport system planning—a U.K. study

There is growing public pressure, from environmentalist groups and others, for the imposition of lorry bans in urban areas. In the U.K. such bans have so far only been imposed as through‐route bans by small towns, such as Windsor, where the overall impact on operators and on road freight costs is limited. The Greater London Council's response to the pressure for lorry bans has been to set up a Committee of Inquiry to examine the impact of an access ban on the heaviest lorries in the London area. The proposed ban would apply to an area enclosed by the M25 orbital motorway within which vehicles above a specified gross tonnage would not be allowed to operate. A number of metropolitan authorities elsewhere in the U.K. are thought to be considering similar restrictions on lorries.

In this paper, the impact of area lorry bans on goods vehicle operating costs is discussed. It is suggested that practices based on “direct distribution” techniques may prove less costly than the operating alternatives that have been evaluated in the past which include public transhipment depots and the exclusive use of small vehicles.     

Equity effects of congestion pricing: Quantitative methodology and a case study for Stockholm

It is widely recognised that congestion pricing could be an effective measure to solve environmental and congestion problems in urban areas—a reform that normally also would generate a net welfare surplus. Despite this the implementation of congestion pricing has been very slow. One reason for a low public and political acceptance could be that equity impacts have not been given enough concern. In studies of distributional impacts of congestion pricing it has often been claimed that the reform is regressive rather than progressive even if there are studies claiming the opposite. We develop a method for detailed, quantitative assessment of equity effects of road pricing and apply it to a real-world example, namely a proposed congestion-charging scheme for Stockholm. The method simultaneously takes into account differences in travel behaviour, in preferences (such as values of time) and in supply of travel possibilities (car ownership, public transport level-of-service etc.). We conclude that the two most important factors for the net impact of congestion pricing are the initial travel patterns and how revenues are used. Differences in these respects dwarf differences in other factors such as values of time. This is accentuated by the fact that the total collected charges are more than three times as large as the net benefits. With respect to different groups, we find that men, high-income groups and residents in the central parts of the city will be affected the most. If revenues are used for improving public transport, this will benefit women and low-income groups the most. If revenues are used for tax cuts, the net benefits will be about equal for men and women on the average, while it naturally will benefit high-income groups. Given that it is likely that the revenues will be used to some extent to improve the public transport system, we conclude that the proposed congestion-charging scheme for Stockholm is progressive rather than regressive.     

A cost and expected consequence approach to planning and managing railroad transportation of hazardous materials

Although hazardous materials (hazmat) account for around 140 million tons of all railroad freight traffic in the US, it has not received much attention from academic researchers. This is surprising especially when one considers the volume of hazmat moved by railroads in both North America and Europe. In this paper we develop a bi-objective optimization model, where cost is determined based on the characteristics of railroad industry and the determination of transport risk incorporates the dynamics of railroad accident. The optimization model and the solution framework is used to solve a realistic-size problem instance based in south-east US, which is then analyzed to gain managerial insights. In addition, a risk-cost frontier depicting non-dominated solutions is developed, followed by conclusion.     

Transport effects of e-commerce: what can be learned after years of research?

This paper offers an extensive review of conceptual and quantitative studies on the implications of business-to-consumer (b2c) e-commerce on mobility. To create a more comprehensive understanding of the mobility implications we also discuss the complementary side: freight transport. Most studies conducted thus far have looked at the consequences of b2c e-commerce for either personal travel or goods movement, but not for both. The added value of this review article is that it not only explores the conclusions drawn in the wide-ranging published research, but also attempts to review the sampling strategies, definitions, assumptions and methodologies that lead to the diverse conclusions. For example, the paper discusses the differences in how “e-shopping” is defined (whether it includes browsing or only purchasing) and with what frequency a respondent e-shops (however it is defined) in order to be considered an “e-shopper”. The review describes how product differentiation is necessary to scrutinize the mobility effects of e-commerce. It points to studies which tend to have a dual conclusion. We try to observe whether complementary effects are given the same level of attention as substitution effects. Each of these factors can have sizable impacts on the quantitative conclusions reached. Our aim is that, by calling attention to these issues, the conclusions of studies will be discussed in a rigorous way to improve our knowledge of the transportation impacts of online shopping.     

Is a new applied transportation research field emerging?––A review of intermodal rail–truck freight transport literature

Intermodal freight transport has developed into a significant sector of the transport industry in its own right. This development has been followed by an increase in intermodal freight transportation research. We contend that a new transportation research application field is emerging; and that, while still in a pre-paradigmatic phase, it is now time to move on to a more mature independent research field. An independent research field can be justified because intermodal transport is a complex system that has characteristics which distinguishes it from other transport systems. We have reviewed 92 publications in order to identify the characteristics of the intermodal research community and scientific knowledge base. This paper will discuss aspects of this research, assessing the status quo and seeking directions for the future. To conclude, we will propose an intermodal research agenda which can direct the intermodal research field towards a period of “normal science”.     

Profit-based maritime container assignment models for liner shipping networks

We propose the problem of profit-based container assignment (P-CA), in which the container shipment demand is dependent on the freight rate, similar to the “elastic demand” in the literature on urban transportation networks. The problem involves determining the optimal freight rates, the number of containers to transport and how to transport the containers in a liner shipping network to maximize the total profit. We first consider a tactical-level P-CA with known demand functions that are estimated based on historical data and formulate it as a nonlinear optimization model. The tactical-level P-CA can be used for evaluating and improving the container liner shipping network. We then address the operational-level P-CA with unknown demand functions, which aims to design a mechanism that adjusts the freight rates to maximize the profit. A theoretically convergent trial-and-error approach, and a practical trial-and-error approach, are developed. A numerical example is reported to illustrate the application of the models and approaches.     

Breakthrough innovations in intermodal freight transport

Breakthrough innovations, whether technological, organizational or both, are a necessity if the market share of intermodal freight transport is to expand. The main growth potential lies in the markets for flows over short distances, for perishable and high-value commodities, for small consignments, and for flows that demand speed, reliability and flexibility. It will take radical innovations to produce a breakthrough in the modal split and allow these new markets to be conquered. This special issue is based on papers presented at an international conference on freight transport automation and multimodality, held in Delft in May 2002, that are illustrative of the direction of breakthrough research and development (R&D) aimed at increasing the market share for intermodal transport.     

Scheduling railway freight delivery appointments using a bid price approach

This paper proposes a method for establishing aggressive but achievable delivery appointment times for railroad shipments, taking into account individual customer needs and forecasted available train capacity. The concept of scheduling appointment times is directly patterned after current motor carrier industry practice, so that customers can plan for rail or truck deliveries in the same way.A shipment routing problem is decomposed into a deterministic “dynamic car scheduling” (DCS) process for shipments already accepted and a stochastic “train segment pricing” (TSP) process for forecasting future demands which have not yet called in and for which delivery appointments have yet to be scheduled. Both are formulated as multi-commodity network flow (MCNF) problems, where each shipment is treated as a separate commodity. Gain coefficients represent recapture probabilities that a specific customer will accept a carrier’s service offer.A comparison with a widely used revenue management formulation is given. A Lagrangian heuristic for obtaining a primal solution is also described. The problem is solved within a 1% gap using the subgradient algorithm.     

Investigating the market for inter-modal freight technologies

Freight carried by rail has traditionally been mainly low value bulk commodities. The market for transport of such commodities appears at best static and is forming a smaller proportion of the total demand for freight transport. There is thus an urgent need for rail operators to develop practical and cost effective inter-modal systems, which offer high quality services to consignors of consumer goods whose premises are not usually connected to the rail network. Much long-haul traffic of this type is international. In continental Europe, a number of inter-modal technologies—including swapbodies and piggyback—have long been in use. Development of similar technologies for use within the more constrained loading gauge of Great Britain, has received a great boost from the impending opening of the Channel Tunnel. The alternative technologies are discussed, before turning to ways of stimating the market for them. A large part of the paper is devoted to reporting on a computerised survey using our LASP (Leeds Adaptive Stated Preference) technique. The reason for using hypothetical Stated Preference data is the inadequate nature and extent of data on actual choice decisions, particularly in circumstances in which confidential freight rates are individually negotiated and little general merchandise goes by rail. By bringing together the results of this survey with information on costs and quality of service, the likely future market for inter-modal freight technologies is assessed. It is seen that the potential for inter-modal services within Britain is very limited, although there should be a good opportunity on the major corridor from London to Scotland through the West Midlands and the North West. When the Channel Tunnel is opened, however, the potential for services between Britain and continental Europe will be enormous, provided that an adequate quality of service can be offered.