Information Management in Beach Planning

Abstract

This article concerns optimizing the use of environmental information for creative planning. It arose from a detailed study of the status and management of the coastal dunes of New South Wales, Australia, and discusses the way in which ideas for optimizing the management process were developed, and applied to three beach environments on the coast of New South Wales, Australia.

The problem of coastal beach/dune management may be thought of as being similar to a production function in which the inputs are the land resource, the skills and knowledge of managers, finance, and materiel. The outcomes are in the form of experiences, or opportunities for experiences, either passive or active, either consumption values or option values, desired by the coastal user population (which includes the resource managers themselves). The resource manager's task is to manipulate the “production function”; in order that the outputs will best mesh with the expectations of the user population and with the capability of the land resource to deliver on a sustained basis. An aim of the project was to develop a method for the specification of different possible outputs from the production function, in different beach/dune environments, and that could be used to assist in the preparation of advice on appropriate recreational development, allowing decisions to be based on both environmental data and information on the expectations, activities, and amenity preferences of beach users.     

Geography and Coastal Management

This article presents an overview of the relationship between geography and coastal management. It explores the nature of geography as well as the geographical underpinnings of key notions within coastal management, in particular, “coast,” “conflict,” and “integration.” The article considers the integrated coastal management process and tracks the influence of geography on the development of the discipline's theory and practice, as well as its academic infrastructure. The article concludes that although geography both underpins and offers useful insights into coastal management, a challenge remains to explore in greater depth the benefits of applied geographical approaches to the management of coasts.     

Classification of Beach Erosion Vulnerability on the Yucatan Coast

Beach erosion can have important socioeconomic and environmental consequences, particularly in tropical regions where tourism is a significant source of income. Although caused by natural processes, erosion is often aggravated by disorderly anthropogenic modification of the coast and extreme events. In Yucatan, Mexico, increasing urban development and deficient coastal management strategies as well as hurricanes have affected beach stability. This has highlighted the need for adequate coastal planning and policies that ensure the protection of key coastal ecosystems, such as beaches and sand dunes. To address this, a methodology to classify the coast according to its vulnerability is presented in this work. This methodology assumes that morphological features are indicators of beach evolution and the processes driving it and that these can be associated with different levels of vulnerability. The features considered are beach width, dune vegetation, anthropogenic pressure, and shoreline orientation, which were analyzed through aerial images and a multicriteria evaluation. It was observed that the most vulnerable areas are found near the most developed parts of the coast, where narrow beaches with little dune vegetation dominate. It is expected that this index will be of use to coastal planners and decision makers, particularly in the identification of critical zones.     

Governing Coastal Spaces: The Case of Disappearing Science in Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Scientific knowledge is central to “good” governance of coastal spaces: developing methods through which the complexities of the coastal zone can be understood by stakeholders to improve the sustainable management of coastal systems. Enhancing our knowledge of the range of processes that shape coastal spaces and define the total behavioural environment of the system remains a primary challenge for the coastal research community. However, this article raises the argument that current approaches to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)—the preferred governing framework for the coastal environment, do not give sufficient emphasis to this fundamental need. Improving the basic scientific knowledge that underpins policymaking at the coast is argued to be urgently needed. Issues such as that of developing a communality of the purpose and approach between stakeholders within the coastal zone (through conflict resolution and access to information, for example) seem to claim the rights of the integrated management research agenda. However, the very nature of ICZM as “worthwhile coastal management” requires that integrated management represents more than a governing framework. Successful integration in coastal management must also be underpinned by knowledge of the integrated behavior of the system. Science has an increasingly marginalized position within ICZM and as a result geographers, contributing knowledge of the patterns and processes of the human and environmental landscapes, are also becoming a disappearing breed in integrated coastal management.     

Introduction to the Theme Issue: The Role of Geography in Contemporary Coastal Management Policy and Practice

This article provides a brief introduction to the theme issue on “The role of geography in contemporary coastal management policy and practice.” The theme is addressed through a suite of seven articles that collectively consider how geographical understandings and methods relate to contemporary coastal policy and practice. The key theme to emerge from the articles is that geography forms an underlying framework for considering integrated coastal management, largely due to the integrative nature of geography itself.     

Geographical variations in hurricane risk and legislative response

Abstract

Risk from the “natural event system”; of hurricanes varies greatly along the U.S. coastline, and so do the property and lives at risk. Damage potential from storm surge in the Miami area is less than a third that of the Tampa area. However, damage potential from winds in the Boston and New York areas exceeds that of either the Miami or Tampa areas. Passage of time since the great hurricane disasters near the turn of the century and improvements in the warning system may make coastal dwellers underestimate the likelihood of a hurricane catastrophe. But population growth near the coast has been more than three times the national average, and 10 of 58 coastal segments 50 miles in width more than doubled in population between 1960 and 1970. Twenty‐two segments increased by more than 25,000 people with six increasing by 150,000. Legislative response to the growing hazard has varied as widely as risk but is not clearly correlated with risk.     

Coastal Resources as an Engine of Economic Growth and Reduction of Poverty in West Africa: Policy Considerations

This article synthesizes lessons and outcomes from the second international Coastal Zone Asia-Pacific conference (CZAP) on “Improving the Quality of Life in Coastal Areas,” held in Brisbane in September 2004. The conference theme was chosen as a follow-up from the first CZAP that identified priority actions in response to the increasing recognition of social issues in coastal management, particularly those aiming to improve the state of the coastal areas in the Asia-Pacific region. The second CZAP explored the “quality of life” theme by placing emphasis on rectifying coastal poverty, sustaining livelihoods, and protecting cultural heritage. Mechanisms to address these issues were explored through international agreements, participatory research, capacity building, and education, as well as the continuing need for integrated planning, environmental management, and effective monitoring and evaluation. A post-conference survey showed that the second CZAP resulted in 122 initiatives (82 underway and another 40 planned) to progress the improvement of quality of life in coastal areas. These initiatives ranged from the establishment of a unit that is responsible for river basin and coastal zone management by the Thua Thien Hue provincial government in Vietnam, to a collaborative on-ground livelihoods project between NGOs, government, and financial institutions on coastal zone management facilitated by the Asian Development Bank. However, the authors argue that two key challenges for ICM in the Asia-Pacific region remain. These challenges relate to the effective monitoring and evaluation of ICM initiatives, as well as matching future ICM initiatives to emergent priority areas.     

Institutional arrangements for coastal conservation in New Zealand

Abstract

The focus of this paper is institutional arrangements for initiative coastal conservation in New Zealand. “Initiative”; conservation refers to positive measures for the protection of the natural environment for reasons related to its inherent worth. Case studies were undertaken in five areas with different biophysical and societal characteristics, where various approaches to coastal conservation are being attempted. In each area, an issue was analyzed to identify conservation policies and their relationship to ecological and human needs, and to administrative and legal frameworks. Analysis demonstrated that initiative conservation policy can encompass user and community needs while maintaining ecological priorities. Institutional arrangements do not appear to restrict the development of this type of policy in New Zealand, but they do limit its formal expression and implementation. Arrangements for cohesive conservation areas spanning the land‐sea interface are particularly lacking.     

Constraint Mapping as a Means of Further Refining Saltmarsh Re-Creation Opportunities for the UK Solent Region

Based on geomorphological criteria, the Coastal Habitat Management Plan (CHaMP) for the Solent identified some 4,800 hectares of land potentially suitable for the creation of intertidal habitat, principally saltmarsh, through the use of managed realignment. Using “constraint mapping,” this study set out to illustrate that limitations to habitat re-creation through inundation are not merely geomorphological in nature. Indeed, a broad range of social, political, legal, technical, and economic constraints exist and must be evaluated in conjunction with physical parameters if the objectives of the European Birds and Habitats Directives are to be met, and so that future coastal defense policies ensure maintenance of the “favorable conservation status” of designated sites. A numerical filter system has been used to re-evaluate individual sites to establish “realistic” opportunities for compensatory saltmarsh creation in the Solent. As a result of taking into account wider socioeconomic constraints, it is clear that fewer areas are available for habitat creation purposes than were initially identified in the Solent CHaMP study.     

How to Retreat: The Necessary Transition from Buyouts to Leasing

Abstract

Moving assets out of vulnerable areas, known as “retreat,” is a necessary but unpopular option when coastal hazards impact land. Most people prefer protection options. Governments and private land owners tend to adopt a “wait-and-see” approach for retreat. This may be because the time for retreat seems some way off, or because protection has not yet been ruled out, or to avoid unwelcome news. This policy void has allowed people to assume that government will offer to “buyout” property on generous terms after coastal hazards inevitably force the owner to relocate. The problem with that assumption is that (a) it is unaffordable as a solution for all at-risk properties and (b) it acts as an incentive to intensify development in locations vulnerable to coastal hazards. It is, in effect, a form of market distortion which promotes maladaptive behavior. We therefore need to retire that assumption by articulating a standard default arrangement for retreat. This essay suggests that government should establish a default position of renting land, rather than acquiring it, once assets are abandoned by private land owners. This provides sufficient leverage to protect the public interest and a level of financial assistance to the relocating land owner, while allowing markets to properly reflect risk and enabling coastal adaptation.     

Do Marine Protected Areas Affect Human Nutrition and Health? A Comparison between Villages in Roviana,Solomon Islands

The implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) for fisheries management has increased recently due to the perceived role of MPAs in conserving biodiversity, increasing fish stocks, and enhancing the food security of coastal communities. However, it is unclear whether MPAs may restrict the availability of marine resources and decrease overall food security and the health of the people. In the Roviana Lagoon of the Solomon Islands, we conducted cross-comparisons of villages with MPAs and a village without an MPA to assess whether MPAs influenced local perceptions of governance, environmental change, livelihood strategies, and actual human nutrition and health. Results showed that residents of villages with effective MPAs had higher energy and protein intake than those who had no MPA or an ineffective MPA. We conclude that “no-take” marine reserves do not have adverse effects and that when MPAs are effectively sustained they may enhance local nutrition and health.     

Surfer and Beachgoer Responsiveness to Coastal Water Quality Warnings

Fecal contamination of coastal waters has led local public health agencies to issue tens of thousands of beach advisories annually and to advise against ocean swimming and surfing for 72 hours following a rain. The responsiveness of recreationists to beach advisories and the “72 hour rule” is estimated by merging four years of multi-daily surfer and beachgoer counts at one beach in Southern California with hourly data on beach advisories, recent precipitation, meteorological conditions, and the UCSB academic calendar. Both surfing and beach-going decreased significantly following rainfall in response to the 72 hour rule, showing that recreationists are willing to engage in health risk-reducing avoiding behavior. However, neither surfing nor beach-going decreased significantly during beach advisories. Surfers were significantly more responsive to beach advisories during dry periods than during wet periods, consistent with the hypothesis that recreationists are most likely to respond to a risk warning that they believe provides accurate and additional health risk information beyond what they can observe personally. Additional studies of beach advisories elsewhere could clarify whether responsiveness to beach advisories varies by recreationist demographic, recreational activity, frequency of advisories, or frequency of repeat visitation. Increasing the accuracy and additional information provided by beach advisories, as proposed by numerous authors, could lead to increased responsiveness.     

The Teachable Moments on Marine Mammal Tours: Watching versus Swim-With Tours

With the continuing growth of the tourism industry over recent decades, has come a change in tourist behavior from the traditional stereotypical 3-S tourist (sun, sand, sex) to an increasingly sophisticated and demanding tourist. These “new” tourists like to learn about history, nature, and wildlife, and they expect an educational component on wildlife tours. This study investigated swim-with-dolphin tours in Kaikoura, New Zealand with regard to the educational content and the overall anatomy of these tours, using data from observations on a total of 32 tours during December 2011. The resulting data were then compared with the data from Hrycik and Forestell's study, which investigated the content of questions asked by passengers on whale-watching tours in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Results of the on-tour observations indicate that the surveyed tours display a structured approach to interpretation, which is customized to the specific tour anatomy of a “swim-with” tour, and varies in some parts significantly from “watch-only” tour interpretation.     

An application of interactive management information systems to environmental planning: Coastal zone management

Recent emphasis in comprehensive planning for coastal zone regions has created the need for more effective tools for information processing and analysis to aid policymakers and planners in developing strategies for preservation of coastal zone areas. New agencies with broad powers have been created at both state and federal levels to deal with growth management in large coastal regions. However, coastal zone management (CZM) agencies have not yet been able to deal effectively with development processes. A “holding action”; is being maintained in the face of mounting pressure by developers, while planners struggle to develop (1) a data base with sufficient detail for planning; (2) a fair and rapid process for reviewing environmental impact statements and granting of development permits; and (3) a system for making the development permit application process more routine. The key to success of the CZM process is the development of a management information system (MIS) created explicitly for CZM. The prototypical system designed by the authors combines graphic display capabilities (i.e., map display) with interactive on‐line computing and large storage‐capacity computers. Problems of data structure development are documented, together with problems of assembling a large‐scale, highly detailed data base. Of particular importance is the need for well‐developed objectives and specifications for the use of computer‐based data in resolving disputes on environmental issues. A set of objectives and specifications for a prototypical coastal zone MIS is developed. The system is described in detail, showing how its capabilities directly address policy questions formulated by coastal zone planners.     

Planning for resilient coastal communities: Lessons from ecological systems theory

Abstract

One of the least understood aspects of coastal zone utilization is how communities respond and adapt to changes occurring in the marine environment and to changes which transform the socioeconomic, political, and administrative environment of the coastal zone. In Atlantic Canada, it is estimated that there are some 1,300 “fishing communities,”; yet these communities vary considerably in terms of population size, proximity to urban centers, and dependence upon the local resource base to provide employment opportunities and alternatives. Although numerous government planning documents have purported to support “community revitalization”; and “self‐sufficiency/self‐reliance,”; few inquiries have been directed toward ascertaining how communities have maintained resiliency in the face of unexpected and sudden shock, or have adapted to more gradual change. This essay argues that human communities and ecological systems may have similar attributes, and that appropriate resource development and management planning should take account of these traits as well as the sustaining structural support mechanisms.     

Facts,Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe

Nearly 40 years on since its first tentative steps in North America, this article considers whether Integrated Zone Coastal Management (ICZM) in Europe has grown to maturity as a form of governance. The article summarizes the findings of recent research concerning the levels of implementation of coastal management in Europe, with particular reference to the UK experience. A research framework is used to identify the different motivations behind the social actor groups involved in coastal management. The application of this framework reveals four major findings about gaps in implementation: (1) the complexity of responsibilities at the coast continues to prevent agencies from taking a “joined-up” approach; (2) a policy vacuum is constraining implementation from national to local scales; (3) informational obstacles are significant in preventing co-ordination between science and policymakers, and between different sectors; (4) a democratic deficit is preventing implementation in the working practices of coastal stakeholders, with little opportunity in decision making for public comment or local accountability, especially offshore. The article also explores different conceptualizations of the role of coastal management and planning held across Europe, providing an analysis using the Strategic Management literature and the experience of the EU Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (1996–1999). Recent arrangements, with the availability of priming funds from the European Commission and emphasis on “pilot” and “demonstration” methods, have tended to encourage a project-based approach to ICZM that may fail to realize long-term objectives. The article seeks to present an analysis of the behaviors of scientists, academics, policymakers, and practitioners, and will be of interest to all those seeking to establish ICZM within the wider system of governance, as supported by the Commission of the European Community (2000) Communication on ICZM (COM 547). Some technical solutions are also offered from the UK experience that will be of use to coastal project officers working at national and regional levels.     

Cooperative tourism and the coastal zone

Abstract

Most tourist development takes place in the coastal zone. Concentrated tourist use continues in spite of opposition by groups who feel that any tourism, especially international, threatens both the natural environment and local values. Although shorelines and “coastscapes”; belong to all, decisions regarding them are made by relatively few. The number of community organizations involved in coastal zone management decisions varies from almost none in some Third World countries to dozens in places like Hawaii or California. Constructive use of coastal zones requires an understanding of the interactions between biophysical and social systems. Planning tourism in this context requires that all groups with an interest in the coastal zone join in a new “cooperative tourism”; in which all contribute to decisions and face ultimate responsibilities.     

Coastal communities—partners or puppets in outer continental shelf development

This article reviews the history of esthetics and its role in the development of outdoor recreation policy. Current research is also reviewed, demonstrating the broad scope and complexity of esthetics as a focus for research. Finally, in the absence of sufficient research for formulating coastal recreation planning and management decisions, the ethics of coastal recreation “development”; is considered.     

Adaptation Pathways in Coastal Case Studies: Lessons Learned and Future Directions

Climate change adaptation presents a difficult challenge for coastal towns around the world, forcing local governments to plan for sea level rise in a contentious decision-making space. The concept of “adaptation pathways,” a diagnostic and analytical tool to assist in adaptive planning and decision-making, is gaining traction as a way of framing and informing climate adaptation. It provides decisionmakers a way to acknowledge the inter-temporal complexities and uncertainties associated with the novel dynamics of climate change and a mechanism to manage these challenges in the local context. In 2012, the Australian Government funded an 18-month program to provide decisionmakers in the coastal zone an opportunity to test the utility of the adaptation pathways concept for coastal climate adaptation. Using a selection of completed projects as case studies, we performed a document analysis to better understand the learnings from the projects. The main themes surrounded: (1) the utility of the adaptation pathway framework in developing options, (2) decision-making rationale and criteria, and (3) stakeholder participation in pathway development. A project participant survey was developed to further understand these themes. Our analysis reveals that “adaptation pathways” was generally framed narrowly and conservatively to emphasize extant economic, administrative and legal considerations over community, participatory, or exploratory ones. Although some case study projects were able to reach a point in the pathway discussion to actively involve stakeholders in their decision-making process, many case studies continued to build technical data as a method for defending policies and actions. These results indicate that coastal adaptation can take-up adaptation pathways as a useful concept for decision-making and planning; however, many councils may still require assistance in stakeholder communication processes in order to develop sociallyacceptable plans that take into account the full range of values affecting local coastal environments.     

Protecting Rhode Island's coastal salt ponds: An economic assessment of downzoning

Abstract

In southern Rhode Island, there is growing concern that housing and recreational demands will soon overwhelm the capacity of the coastal salt ponds to absorb wastes, produce seafood, and maintain scenic qualities. As a result, coastal towns have been studying the feasibility of using land controls such as downzoning to protect these coastal amenities. The paper presents an economic analysis of the downzoning program proposed in the town of South Kingstown. Hedonic price and contingent valuation methods are used to value coastal amenities. The estimated net present value of “swimmable” water is shown to be $3.1 million.