Prediction of residual stresses induced by low transformation temperature weld wires and its validation using the contour method

Welding residual stresses are one of the main factors influencing the engineering properties of welded structures, and should be taken into account during designing and manufacturing products such as ships, bridges, etc. Recently, both computational and experimental methods play a significant role for providing residual stresses. The contour method (CM) became one of the most powerful techniques that can provide measurement of residual stresses normal to a plane of interest. In this method a component is cut at any plane of interest. Displacements normal to the cut surface are measured and then processed. Using the Thermal–Elastic–Plastic Finite Element Method (TEP-FEM), residual stresses after welding can be predicted. As well as, the elastic FEM can be used to reproduce residual stresses from measured longitudinal displacements in the CM.The main objective of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of different low transformation temperature (LTT) weld wires using TEP-FEM and the CM. In the simulation part, a computational approach is developed to numerically simulate both of welding and the CM. In the TEP-FEM, phase transformation is considered for LTT welds, additionally volume change and variation of mechanical properties with temperature are considered. In the simulated CM, welded specimens to be measured are replaced by TEP-FE models. Then the procedure of the CM is examined before applying it to real measurements. The simulated CM successfully predicted how the CM would reconstruct the residual stresses if applied experimentally. In the experimental part, welding is conducted using conventional and various LTT weld wires. Longitudinal residual stresses produced due to welding are measured using the CM. The results of TEP-FE simulation and the CM show the effectiveness of the different LTT weld wires in introducing compressive stresses in the weld. It is also observed that the applied LTT weld wires, which have almost the same martensitic transformation start temperatures, do not show big difference in the induced compressive residual stresses in the weld metal.     

A design method of tensile triangles and low transformation temperature weld metal for reduction of stress concentration and residual stress of welded joints

Stress concentration and residual stress have a significant influence on fatigue life of welded joints. In order to reduce the stress concentration of welded joints, a mathematical design method of tensile triangles (MTT) based on bionics was applied to weld shape design. Accordingly, the stress concentration of various weld beads in the corner boxing welded joint and the fillet welded T-joint was dissected using our in-house FEM software JWRIAN. It was found that there existed a large stress concentration in the conventional welded joints, whereas those welded joints with elongated weld bead were accompanied by a lower stress concentration, especially for elongated weld bead with MTT design. Furthermore, among the weld shapes of the corner boxing fillet welded joint, the rectangle shape of weld bead had the minimum stress concentration factor (1.05). For the fillet welded T-joint with MTT design, the stress concentration of weld toe decreased dramatically with the increase of the index of designed shape, but there was a minor difference of stress concentration at weld root between the weld beads with MTT design. In addition, application of low transformation temperature (LTT) weld metal utilizing martensitic transformation to the fillet welded T-joints can produce compressive residual stress at weld toe.     

大型核电厚壁结构X射线衍射法残余应力测试

采用X射线衍射法（ XRD）对大型核电厚壁结构堆芯板端面、堆芯板与吊篮筒体环焊缝焊前焊后残余应力进行无损测量。研究堆芯板端面、环焊缝焊前焊后残余应力的分布情况及变化规律。结果表明：堆芯板焊前残余应力主要是机加工应力,且焊接过程对其残余应力影响不大;1＃和2＃堆芯板环焊缝轴向残余应力分布趋势明显,呈现焊缝为压应力,母材为拉应力;测试的环向应力在各区域分布不一致;焊接对远离焊缝区域的应力没有影响,远离焊缝区域呈现较大的加工应力。     

Residual stress measurement in an extra thick multi-pass weld using initial stress integrated inherent strain method

Residual stresses existing in a multi-pass butt joint with a thickness of 70 mm, using a flux-cored arc welding process, were measured by an inherent strain method (ISM). Since such a thick plate before welding contains a large amount of initial residual stresses (−300 to +100 MPa), the initial stresses were integrated with conventional ISM in order to determine the total residual stresses in a welded joint. Two methods named as initial stress integrated ISM and initial inherent strain integrated ISM were suggested for the consideration of the initial stress distributions through the thickness of base plates. The results show that there is a significant difference between the integrated ISM with initial stresses or initial inherent strain and the conventional ISM without initial stresses. The residual stresses measured by any of the initial stress integrated ISM and initial inherent strain integrated ISM agreed well with the neutron diffraction measurement. Thus, the proposed initial stress integrated ISM is a proper destructive measurement method in the case of thick weld joints.     

超大型集装箱船用超高强度钢EH47焊接残余应力模拟与实验研究

超高强度钢EH47广泛应用于超大型集装箱船舱口围板等区域结构中,建造过程中常常伴随着较大的焊接残余应力,直接影响到船体结构的安全及使用寿命。论文基于有限元分析软件ANSYS,对平板对接焊进行模拟,得到焊接残余应力的大小和分布,并采用盲孔法对焊缝区域进行残余应力测量。结果表明:残余应力在靠近焊缝中心及区域附近处表现为拉应力,随着逐渐往焊缝中心靠拢,拉应力迅速增大,当达到焊缝中心附近时拉应力达到最大值。随着逐渐远离焊缝中心,拉应力迅速减小,达到一定距离时转变为压应力,并在距离焊趾2.5 cm处达到压应力最大值,数值模拟结果与试验测量值基本吻合,同时焊后热处理能有效降低有损结构强度的焊接残余应力。     

定位焊顺序对单面埋弧焊接头残余应力和变形的影响（英文）

Submerged arc welding(SAW) is advantageous for joining high thickness materials in large structure due to high material deposition rate. The non-uniform heating and cooling generates the thermal stresses and subsequently the residual stresses and distortion. The longitudinal and transverse residual stresses and angular distortion are generally measured in large panel structure of submerged arc welded fillet joints. Hence, the objective of this present work is to quantify the amount of residual stress and distortion in and around the weld joint due to positioning of stiffeners tack. The tacking sequence influences the level of residual stress and proper controlling of tacking sequences is required to minimize the stress. In present study, an elasto-plastic material behavior is considered to develop the thermo mechanical model which predicts the residual stress and angular distortion with varying tacking sequences. The simulated result reveals that the tacking sequence heavily influences the residual stress and deformation pattern of the single sided fillet joint. The finite element based numerical model is calibrated by comparing the experimental data from published literature. Henceforth, the angular distortions are measured from an in-house developed experimental set-up. A fair agreement between the predicted and experimental results indicates the robustness of the developed numerical model. However, the most significant conclusion from present study states that tack weld position should be placed opposite to the fillet weld side to minimize the residual stress.     

Influence of tacking sequence on residual stress and distortion of single sided fillet submerged arc welded joint

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is advantageous for joining high thickness materials in large structure due to high material deposition rate. The non-uniform heating and cooling generates the thermal stresses and subsequently the residual stresses and distortion. The longitudinal and transverse residual stresses and angular distortion are generally measured in large panel structure of submerged arc welded fillet joints. Hence, the objective of this present work is to quantify the amount of residual stress and distortion in and around the weld joint due to positioning of stiffeners tack. The tacking sequence influences the level of residual stress and proper controlling of tacking sequences is required to minimize the stress. In present study, an elasto-plastic material behavior is considered to develop the thermo mechanical model which predicts the residual stress and angular distortion with varying tacking sequences. The simulated result reveals that the tacking sequence heavily influences the residual stress and deformation pattern of the single sided fillet joint. The finite element based numerical model is calibrated by comparing the experimental data from published literature. Henceforth, the angular distortions are measured from an in-house developed experimental set-up. A fair agreement between the predicted and experimental results indicates the robustness of the developed numerical model. However, the most significant conclusion from present study states that tack weld position should be placed opposite to the fillet weld side to minimize the residual stress.     

Effect of welding sequence on residual stress and distortion in flat-bar stiffened plates

Numerical simulation based on finite element modelling is used to study the influence of welding sequences on the distribution of residual stress and distortion generated when welding a flat-bar stiffener to a steel plate. The simulation consists of sequentially coupled thermal and structural analyses using an element birth and death technique to model the addition of weld metal to the workpiece. The temperature field during welding and the welding-induced residual stress and distortion fields are predicted and results are compared with experimental measurements and analytical predictions. The effect of four welding sequences on the magnitude of residual stress and distortion in both the plate and the stiffener is investigated and their effects on the ultimate strength of the stiffened plate under uniaxial compression are discussed. Appropriate conclusions and recommendations regarding the welding sequence are presented.     

基于Icepak的水冷板结构优化设计

针对水冷板的热设计,在理论分析的基础上,确定影响水冷板散热的结构因素。通过在电子设备热分析软件Icepak中建立水冷板的热仿真模型,探讨水冷板结构形式对散热的影响,得到了肋片高度、长度、数量和宽度对水冷板散热效果的影响规律,实现了水冷板的结构优化,为后续水冷板的热设计奠定了基础。     

三维移动式钢板高频感应加热成形电磁-热-力全耦合有限元建模研究

文章基于ANSYS-APDL语言,建立了三维移动式钢板高频感应加热成形电磁—热—力多物理场耦合有限元模型,并使用线圈单元选取法实现了感应线圈热源模型的移动。文中采用此模型研究了Q345钢板在不同加热功率下的变形情况,得到如下结论：钢板加热时受热不均匀,加热区上下表面温差很大最后阶段出现端部效应;随着加热功率的增大,钢板表面瞬时最高温度也增大;加热过程中钢板最大压应力出现在上表面加热区前端,最大拉应力出现在钢板上表面加热区的前方;冷却后钢板最大压应力出现在加热线末端,最大拉应力出现在加热线中段区域;开始时加热区上翘,已加热区冷却下凹,当热源接近末端时,已加热变形区上翘,钢板经过冷却后,整体下凹;随着加热功率的增大,加热区域Y方向变形 Uy越大,钢板弯曲角度线性增大,曲率半径先减小后趋于定值;改进后模型的模拟结果与相同实验参数下的实验结果基本吻合,与传统模拟方法相比更接近实验结果。     

不同焊接顺序下加筋板变形及残余应力的三维有限元研究

针对焊接过程的二维有限元计算与实际情况存在一定差别的问题，使用三维热弹-塑性有限元法对不同焊接顺序下加筋板焊接过程进行了仿真，获得了加筋板焊接引起的温度场、位移场和应力场。结果表明：在4点约束条件下，加筋板横截面的变形为中垂变形，纵筋的变形为中拱变形，方案1横截面变形更小，方案2纵筋变形更小。焊接引起的加筋板残余应力主要表现为横向应力，其在近焊缝区为拉应力，达到材料屈服强度，远离焊缝区表现为压应力，达到0.2倍材料屈服强度。加强筋横向应力峰值出现在起弧端和收弧端，约为0.85倍材料屈服强度，纵向应力峰值出现在焊接起弧端，约为0.3倍材料屈服强度。在加筋板横截面位置，焊接顺序主要影响加强筋处的残余应力；在加强筋位置，焊接顺序主要影响纵向应力。每组焊缝同时同向焊接，且每根纵筋从左向右依次焊接的焊接方案产生更小的残余应力。     

基于强化散热的焊后冷源宽度对焊接残余应力的影响

鉴于冷源长度方向尺寸对焊趾位置残余应力峰值的影响不大，本文着重分析冷源宽度方向尺寸对焊后残余应力的影响。本文利用干冰作为焊后冷源介质跟随焊枪同步运动，基于热弹塑性有限元方法，对AH36高强钢薄板随焊激冷的焊接方法进行了模拟。分析了冷源相对于焊缝的宽窄关系对随焊激冷控制残余应力的影响，从而可以对干冰的喷嘴形状设计进行指导，以优化焊后冷源控制应力应变的效果，推进“低应力无变形”焊接技术在船舶领域的发展与应用。结果表明，在焊后施加冷源可以达到降低低应力无变形的效果。其中，在所施加焊后冷源宽度较焊缝宽的情况下，较其他两种宽度冷源控制应力与变形的效果更佳，板中心纵向残余应力可由常规焊的484Mpa减少到375Mpa，减少了109Mpa。     

对接接头焊趾应力集中有限元分析

研究焊缝几何参数对应力集中的影响,对于提高焊接结构疲劳强度有重要的意义.本文采用有限元方法,计算了双侧对称加强高和单侧加强高的对接接头焊趾处的应力集中系数,分析了几个主要参数,包括焊趾倾角、焊趾过渡圆弧半径和板厚对于应力集中系数的影响,研究了焊趾处应力集中沿板厚方向的变化情况,在分析大量计算结果的基础上给出了估算两种形式的对接接头应力集中系数的经验公式.结果表明,减小焊趾倾角,增大过渡圆弧半径,可以减缓焊趾处截面形状的变化,改善焊趾处的应力集中;板厚的增加使得应力集中系数增大.并且单侧加强高的对接接头应力集中系数小于双侧对称加强高对接接头的,其减小幅度只与θ有关.     

Fatigue life prediction of welded stiffened 350WT steel plates

The propagation of fatigue cracks under constant amplitude cyclic loading was studied in welded stiffened steel plates. The residual stresses in the stiffened plates were measured using the neutron diffraction strain-scanning technique. A finite element model of the stiffened plate was constructed to simulate the residual stresses by an uncoupled thermal and thermo-mechanical analysis. Both the finite element model and the neutron diffraction measurements indicated that in general the residual stresses were tensile near the welded stiffeners and compressive between the stiffeners and ahead of the starter notch tip. Fatigue testing indicated that the fatigue crack growth rates of the stiffened plates were in general lower than that of a corresponding unstiffened plate, especially near the notch tip where compressive residual stresses existed. Both the finite element method and Green's function predicted the fatigue crack growth rates with reasonable accuracy.     

On maximum forces exerted by floating ice on a structure due to constrained thermal expansion of ice

The problem of interaction between a floating ice cover and an engineering structure is considered, in which the ice–structure contact forces are caused by an increase in ice temperature due to solar radiation in situations, when the lateral thermal expansion of ice is constrained. The focus is on the determination of the maximum thermally-induced horizontal force exerted on a structure wall, assuming that the magnitude of this force is bound by the smallest force capable of fracturing the ice cover due to its buckling. The ice cover is modelled as a rectangular plate of uniform thickness, with its four edges being constrained by vertical rigid walls, and it is assumed that ice deforms, and eventually fails, by the mechanism of viscous creep buckling. The plate is subjected to in-plane axial compressive stresses developing in ice to prevent its thermal expansion due to solar heating, and is transversely (vertically) bent by the forces caused by the reaction of underlying water. The floating ice is treated as a material whose elastic and viscous properties depend on temperature and the ice porosity, and therefore they vary with time and the depth of ice. The results of numerical simulations, conducted for a variety of the ice plate horizontal dimensions, thicknesses and daytime temperature-change scenarios, illustrate the evolution of the plate deflection surface prior to its failure, and show the time variation of the maximum forces exerted by ice on a structure wall as functions of the ice thickness and maximum daytime temperature rise at the top surface of ice.     

确定焊接反变形的数值模拟及规律分析

焊接接头附近局部的加热及冷却使被焊结构产生残余应力及角变形.目前在船厂精度控制中,通常采用构件焊接后对某些部位进行火工校正的方法来控制残余角变形.文章提供了另外一种有效控制结构残余角变形的方法:对结构焊前施加弹性的反向变形.利用热弹塑性有限元法来模拟结构的焊接过程,并对不同板厚、不同热源的结构分别进行数值模拟,最终确定焊接结构的弹性反变形规律:焊接前施加弹性反变形的结构在焊接后角变形趋于零.     

钛合金Ti-6Al-4V ELI厚板多层多道焊试验与数值模拟

对2块厚度为24mm的Ti-6Al-4VELI厚板进行夹角为171.98°的多层TIG焊接试验,基于SYSWELD软件平台,在焊板两端完全刚性固定的装夹条件下数值模拟计算焊接温度场、应力场和焊接引起的变形.计算结果表明,焊接温度场的变化规律符合实际,焊缝区的拉伸残余应力最大,热影响区的压缩残余应力较大.焊接数值模拟得到的残余应力场与试验测量值能较好地吻合,验证了数值模拟模型的准确性.该数值模拟方法可应用到大深度Ti-6Al-4VELI载人舱强度计算中的焊缝残余应力模拟中.     

FPSO典型焊接接头在疲劳载荷下的残余应力释放数值模拟

为了保证FPSO典型焊接结构的安全可靠性，较准确地预测残余应力在疲劳载荷下的释放状况，采用了三维弹塑性有限元方法．首先分析了在有预载荷情况下，FPSO典型焊接接头的残余应力释放大小，并用试验数据进行验证，然后分析了该结构在疲劳载荷下的残余应力释放行为．计算结果表明，残余应力释放是与初始残余应力和外载荷的大小密切相关的．     

焊接诱导的残余应力对加劲板轴向极限强度影响的简化模型研究（英文）

The present work investigates the compressive axial ultimate strength of fillet-welded steel-plated ship structures subjected to uniaxial compression, in which the residual stresses in the welded plates are calculated by a thermo-elasto-plastic finite element analysis that is used to fit an idealized model of residual stress distribution. The numerical results of ultimate strength based on the simplified model of residual stress show good agreement with those of various methods including the International Association of Classification Societies(IACS) Common Structural Rules(CSR), leading to the conclusion that the simplified model can be effectively used to represent the distribution of residual stresses in steel-plated structures in a wide range of engineering applications. It is concluded that the widths of the tension zones in the welded plates have a quasi-linear behavior with respect to the plate slenderness. The effect of residual stress on the axial strength of the stiffened plate is analyzed and discussed.     

A Simplified Model for the Effect of Weld-Induced Residual Stresses on the Axial Ultimate Strength of Stiffened Plates

The present work investigates the compressive axial ultimate strength of fillet-welded steel-plated ship structures subjected to uniaxial compression, in which the residual stresses in the welded plates are calculated by a thermo-elasto-plastic finite element analysis that is used to fit an idealized model of residual stress distribution. The numerical results of ultimate strength based on the simplified model of residual stress show good agreement with those of various methods including the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) Common Structural Rules (CSR), leading to the conclusion that the simplified model can be effectively used to represent the distribution of residual stresses in steel-plated structures in a wide range of engineering applications. It is concluded that the widths of the tension zones in the welded plates have a quasi-linear behavior with respect to the plate slenderness. The effect of residual stress on the axial strength of the stiffened plate is analyzed and discussed.