Simulation of curving at low speed under high traction for passive steering hauling locomotives

The traction control in modern electric and diesel electric locomotives has allowed rail operators to utilise high traction adhesion levels without undue risk of damage from uncontrolled wheel spin. At the same time, some locomotive manufacturers have developed passive steering locomotive bogies to reduce wheel rail wear and further improve locomotive adhesion performance on curves. High locomotive traction loads in curving are known to cause the loss of steering performance in passive steering bogies. At present there are few publications on the curving performance of locomotive steering with linkage bogies. The most extreme traction curving cases of low speed and high adhesion for hauling locomotives have not been fully investigated, with effects of coupler forces and cant excess being generally ignored. This paper presents a simulation study for three axle bogie locomotives in pusher and pulling train positions on tight curves. The simulation study uses moderate and high traction adhesion levels of 16.6% and 37% for various rail friction conditions. Curving performance is assessed, showing forced steering bogies to have considerable advantages over self steering bogies. Likewise it is shown that self steering bogies are significantly better than yaw relaxation bogies at improving steering under traction. As the required traction adhesion approaches the rail friction coefficient, steering performance of all bogies degrades and yaw of the bogie frame relative to the track increases. Operation with excess cant and tensile coupler forces are both found to be detrimental to the wear performance of all locomotive bogies, increasing the bogie frame yaw angles. Bogie frame pitching is also found to have significant effect on steering, causing increased performance differences between bogie designs.     

Re-adhesion control for a railway single wheelset test rig based on the behaviour of the traction motor

A method for detecting wheel slip/slide and re-adhesion control of AC traction motors in railway applications is presented in this paper. This enables a better utilisation of available adhesion and could also reduce wheel wear by reducing high creep values. With this method, the wheel–rail (roller) creepage, creep force and friction coefficient can be indirectly detected and estimated by measuring the voltage, current and speed of the AC traction motor and using an extended Kalman filter. The re-adhesion controller is designed to regulate the motor torque command according to the maximum available adhesion based on the estimated results. Simulations under different friction coefficients are carried out to test the proposed method.     

Creep force modelling for rail traction vehicles based on the Fastsim algorithm

The evaluation of creep forces is a complex task and their calculation is a time-consuming process for multibody simulation (MBS). A methodology of creep forces modelling at large traction creepages has been proposed by Polach [Creep forces in simulations of traction vehicles running on adhesion limit. Wear. 2005;258:992–1000; Influence of locomotive tractive effort on the forces between wheel and rail. Veh Syst Dyn. 2001(Suppl);35:7–22] adapting his previously published algorithm [Polach O. A fast wheel–rail forces calculation computer code. Veh Syst Dyn. 1999(Suppl);33:728–739]. The most common method for creep force modelling used by software packages for MBS of running dynamics is the Fastsim algorithm by Kalker [A fast algorithm for the simplified theory of rolling contact. Veh Syst Dyn. 1982;11:1–13]. However, the Fastsim code has some limitations which do not allow modelling the creep force – creep characteristic in agreement with measurements for locomotives and other high-power traction vehicles, mainly for large traction creep at low-adhesion conditions. This paper describes a newly developed methodology based on a variable contact flexibility increasing with the ratio of the slip area to the area of adhesion. This variable contact flexibility is introduced in a modification of Kalker's code Fastsim by replacing the constant Kalker's reduction factor, widely used in MBS, by a variable reduction factor together with a slip-velocity-dependent friction coefficient decreasing with increasing global creepage. The proposed methodology is presented in this work and compared with measurements for different locomotives. The modification allows use of the well recognised Fastsim code for simulation of creep forces at large creepages in agreement with measurements without modifying the proven modelling methodology at small creepages.     

基于PLC的变频牵引机车重联控制系统

国内隧道施工多使用变频牵引机车(后文简称机车)进行物料的运输,随着隧道施工进度的加快,对物料运输吞吐量也有更高要求,这就要求机车能够提供更大的牵引力。分析机车现有的控制系统以及重联控制对控制信号传递和数据处理的要求,利用机车现有的PLC控制系统设计了重联控制系统,并用1台40 t和1台20 t机车进行双机车重联同步运行从而实现更大的牵引力,提高物料运输吞吐量。由于利用了现有机车,单台机车规格不变,所以对轨道要求不变,同时重联运行的2台机车使用灵活,既可以重联后作为一个整体使用,也可以在需要的时候分开单独使用,提高了施工效率和设备利用率,节省了施工的成本和时间。     

A model for vehicle–track random interactions on effects of crosswinds and track irregularities

A stochastic mathematical model is developed to evaluate the dynamic behaviours and statistical responses of vehicle–track systems when random system excitations including crosswinds and track irregularities are imposed. In this model, the railway vehicle is regarded as a multi-rigid-body system, the track system is modelled by finite element theory. These two systems are spatially coupled by the nonlinear wheel–rail contact forces and unsteady aerodynamic forces. The high efficiency and accuracy of this stochastic model are validated by comparing to the robust Monte-Carlo method. Numerical studies show that crosswinds have a great influence on the dynamic performance of vehicle–track systems, especially on transverse vibrations. When the railway vehicle initially runs into the wind field, it will experience a severe vibration stage, and then stepping into a relatively steady state where the fluctuating winds and track irregularities will play deterministic roles in the deviations of system responses. Moreover, it is found that track irregularities should be properly considered in the safety assessment of the vehicle even in strong crosswinds.     

Longitudinal train dynamics: an overview

This paper discusses the evolution of longitudinal train dynamics (LTD) simulations, which covers numerical solvers, vehicle connection systems, air brake systems, wagon dumper systems and locomotives, resistance forces and gravitational components, vehicle in-train instabilities, and computing schemes. A number of potential research topics are suggested, such as modelling of friction, polymer, and transition characteristics for vehicle connection simulations, studies of wagon dumping operations, proper modelling of vehicle in-train instabilities, and computing schemes for LTD simulations. Evidence shows that LTD simulations have evolved with computing capabilities. Currently, advanced component models that directly describe the working principles of the operation of air brake systems, vehicle connection systems, and traction systems are available. Parallel computing is a good solution to combine and simulate all these advanced models. Parallel computing can also be used to conduct three-dimensional long train dynamics simulations.     

Locomotive dynamic performance under traction/braking conditions considering effect of gear transmissions

Traction or braking operations are usually applied to trains or locomotives for acceleration, speed adjustment, and stopping. During these operations, gear transmission equipment plays a very significant role in the delivery of traction or electrical braking power. Failures of the gear transmissions are likely to cause power loses and even threaten the operation safety of the train. Its dynamic performance is closely related to the normal operation and service safety of the entire train, especially under some emergency braking conditions. In this paper, a locomotive–track coupled vertical–longitudinal dynamics model is employed with considering the dynamic action from the gear transmissions. This dynamics model enables the detailed analysis and more practical simulation on the characteristics of power transmission path, namely motor–gear transmission–wheelset–longitudinal motion of locomotive, especially for traction or braking conditions. Multi-excitation sources, such as time-varying mesh stiffness and nonlinear wheel–rail contact excitations, are considered in this study. This dynamics model is then validated by comparing the simulated results with the experimental test results under braking conditions. The calculated results indicate that involvement of gear transmission could reveal the load reduction of the wheelset due to transmitted forces. Vibrations of the wheelset and the motor are dominated by variation of the gear dynamic mesh forces in the low speed range and by rail geometric irregularity in the higher speed range. Rail vertical geometric irregularity could also cause wheelset longitudinal vibrations, and do modulations to the gear dynamic mesh forces. Besides, the hauling weight has little effect on the locomotive vibrations and the dynamic mesh forces of the gear transmissions for both traction and braking conditions under the same running speed.     

A study on high-speed rolling contact between a wheel and a contaminated rail

A 3-D explicit finite element model is developed to investigate the transient wheel–rail rolling contact in the presence of rail contamination or short low adhesion zones (LAZs). A transient analysis is required because the wheel passes by a short LAZ very quickly, especially at high speeds. A surface-to-surface contact algorithm (by the penalty method) is employed to solve the frictional rolling contact between the wheel and the rail meshed by solid elements. The LAZ is simulated by a varying coefficient of friction along the rail. Different traction efforts and action of the traction control system triggered by the LAZ are simulated by applying a time-dependent driving torque to the wheel axle. Structural flexibilities of the vehicle–track system are considered properly. Analysis focuses on the contact forces, creepage, contact stresses and the derived frictional work and plastic deformation. It is found that the longitudinal contact force and the maximum surface shear stress in the contact patch become obviously lower in the LAZ and much higher as the wheel re-enters the dry rail section. Consequently, a higher wear rate and larger plastic flow are expected at the location where the dry contact starts to be rebuilt. In other words, contact surface damages such as wheel flats and rail burns may come into being because of the LAZ. Length of the LAZ, the traction level, etc. are varied. The results also show that local contact surface damages may still occur as the traction control system acts.     

A Qualitative Analysis of the Dynamics of Self-Steering Locomotive Trucks

The primary purpose of this study is to provide a qualitative analysis of the dynamics of the self-steering trucks that are commonly used for freight locomotives - namely, EMD's Radial Truck and GE's Steerable Truck - on improving curving performance and increasing adhesion in curves. Although there exists a number of anecdotal statements on the ability of steerable trucks to reduce curving forces and increase adhesion in curves, to the best of our knowledge, there exists no study that provides a qualitative or quantitative analysis of these features of steerable trucks. Two aspects of locomotive trucks are essential for their ability to deliver small curving forces and high adhesion in curves. First, the ability to allow the axles to yaw sufficiently relative to the truck frames, such that they can hold a small angle of attack with the rail. Second, providing sufficiently large longitudinal stiffness between the end axles and the axles and truck frame, to accommodate high adhesions. An equivalent stiffness analysis is used to show that the two steerable trucks that are considered for this study are far superior to conventional, three-axle, straight trucks in providing both a smaller angle of attack and a higher longitudinal stiffness for better curving and adhesion characteristics. The qualitative analysis of this study agrees with the experience the railroads have had with their self-steering trucks. The findings of this study indicate that self-steering trucks can result in lower lateral forces, accommodate tighter curves, and deliver higher adhesion in curves; without lowering the critical hunting speed of the locomotive. The results further show that the steering mechanism stiffness can have a large effect on the lateral, longitudinal, and yaw stiffness between the end axles; therefore, significantly lowering curving forces, and increasing adhesion and critical hunting speed of the truck.     

Experimental and numerical investigation of the effect of rail corrugation on the behaviour of rail fastenings

This paper presents the results of a detailed investigation of the effects of rail corrugation on the dynamic behaviour of metro rail fastenings, obtained from extensive experiments conducted on site and from simulations of train–track dynamics. The results of tests conducted with a metro train operating on corrugated tracks are presented and discussed first. A three-dimensional (3D) model of the metro train and a slab track was developed using multi-body dynamics modelling and the finite element method to simulate the effect of rail corrugation on the dynamic behaviour of rail fastenings. In the model, the metro train is modelled as a multi-rigid body system, and the slab track is modelled as a discrete elastic support system consisting of two Timoshenko beams for the rails, a 3D solid finite element (FE) model for the slabs, periodic discrete viscoelastic elements for the rail fastenings that connect the rails to the slabs, and uniformly viscoelastic elements for the subgrade beneath the slabs. The proposed train–track model was used to investigate the effects of rail corrugation on the dynamic behaviour of the metro track system and fastenings. An FE model for the rail fastenings was also developed and was used to calculate the stresses in the clips, some of which rupture under the excitation of rail corrugation. The results of the field experiments and dynamics simulations provide an insight into the root causes of the fracture of the clips, and several remedies are suggested for mitigating strong vibrations and failure of metro rail fastening systems.     

A Qualitative Analysis of the Dynamics of Self-Steering Locomotive Trucks

The primary purpose of this study is to provide a qualitative analysis of the dynamics of the self-steering trucks that are commonly used for freight locomotives – namely, EMD's Radial Truck and GE's Steerable Truck – on improving curving performance and increasing adhesion in curves. Although there exists a number of anecdotal statements on the ability of steerable trucks to reduce curving forces and increase adhesion in curves, to the best of our knowledge, there exists no study that provides a qualitative or quantitative analysis of these features of steerable trucks. Two aspects of locomotive trucks are essential for their ability to deliver small curving forces and high adhesion in curves. First, the ability to allow the axles to yaw sufficiently relative to the truck frames, such that they can hold a small angle of attack with the rail. Second, providing sufficiently large longitudinal stiffness between the end axles and the axles and truck frame, to accommodate high adhesions. An equivalent stiffness analysis is used to show that the two steerable trucks that are considered for this study are far superior to conventional, three-axle, straight trucks in providing both a smaller angle of attack and a higher longitudinal stiffness for better curving and adhesion characteristics. The qualitative analysis of this study agrees with the experience the railroads have had with their self-steering trucks. The findings of this study indicate that self-steering trucks can result in lower lateral forces, accommodate tighter curves, and deliver higher adhesion in curves; without lowering the critical hunting speed of the locomotive. The results further show that the steering mechanism stiffness can have a large effect on the lateral, longitudinal, and yaw stiffness between the end axles; therefore, significantly lowering curving forces, and increasing adhesion and critical hunting speed of the truck.     

Real-time implementation of a traction control algorithm on a scaled roller rig

Traction control is a very important aspect in railway vehicle dynamics. Its optimisation allows improvement of the performance of a locomotive by working close to the limit of adhesion. On the other hand, in case the adhesion limit is surpassed, the wheels are subjected to heavy wear and there is also a big risk that vibrations in the traction occur. Similar considerations can be made in the case of braking. The development and optimisation of a traction/braking control algorithm is a complex activity, because it is usually performed on a real vehicle on the track, where many uncertainties are present due to environmental conditions and vehicle characteristics. This work shows the use of a scaled roller rig to develop and optimise a traction control algorithm on a single wheelset. Measurements performed on the wheelset are used to estimate the optimal adhesion forces by means of a wheel/rail contact algorithm executed in real time. This allows application of the optimal adhesion force.     

Dynamics of railway wagons subjected to braking/traction torque

Braking or traction torque is regarded as an important source of wheelset skid and a potential source of derailment risk that adversely affects the safety levels of train operations; therefore, this research examines the effect of braking/traction torque to the longitudinal and lateral dynamics of wagons. This paper reports how train operations safety could be adversely affected due to various braking strategies. Sensitivity of wagon dynamics to braking severity is illustrated through numerical examples. The influence of wheel/rail interface friction coefficient and the effects of two types of track geometry defects on wheel unloading ratio and wagon pitch are also discussed in the paper.     

基于PLC的变频牵引机车智能控制系统

系统以PLC结合触摸屏组成变频牵引机车控制系统,采用变频器端子控制与Modbus串口通讯控制相结合的方式来实现PLC对机车的智能监视与控制,以方便系统的调试与故障维修,增强系统的安全性、可靠性和功能的可扩展性。     

Wheel slide protection control using a command map and Smith predictor for the pneumatic brake system of a railway vehicle

In railway vehicles, excessive sliding or wheel locking can occur while braking because of a temporarily degraded adhesion between the wheel and the rail caused by the contaminated or wet surface of the rail. It can damage the wheel tread and affect the performance of the brake system and the safety of the railway vehicle. To safeguard the wheelset from these phenomena, almost all railway vehicles are equipped with wheel slide protection (WSP) systems. In this study, a new WSP algorithm is proposed. The features of the proposed algorithm are the use of the target sliding speed, the determination of a command for WSP valves using command maps, and compensation for the time delay in pneumatic brake systems using the Smith predictor. The proposed WSP algorithm was verified using experiments with a hardware-in-the-loop simulation system including the hardware of the pneumatic brake system.     

Investigation of the impact of locomotive creep control on wear under changing contact conditions

This paper presents the locomotive traction controller performance with respect to the track wear under different operation conditions. In particular, an investigation into the dynamic response of a locomotive under changing wheel–rail friction conditions is performed with an aim to determine the effect of controller setting on track wear. Simulation using a full-scale longitudinal–vertical locomotive dynamic model shows that the appropriately designed creep threshold, controller, settings can effectively maintain a high tractive effort while avoiding excessive rail damage due to wear, especially during acceleration under low speed.     

Fuzzy Logic Traction Controllers and their Effect on Longitudinal Vehicle Platoon Systems

This paper presents two fuzzy logic traction controllers and investigates their effect on longitudinal platoon systems. A fuzzy logic approach is appealing for traction control because of the nonlinearity and time-varying uncertainty involved in traction control systems

The fuzzy logic traction controllers we present regulate brake torque to control wheel slip, which is the normalized difference between wheel and vehicle speed. One fuzzy controller estimates the peak slip corresponding to the maximum tire-road adhesion coefficient and regulates wheel slip at the peak slip. The controller is attractive because of its ability to maximize acceleration and deceleration regardless of road condition. However, we find through simulations the controller's performance degrades in the presence of time-varying uncertainties. The other fuzzy logic controller regulates wheel slip at any desired value. Through simulations we find the controller robust against changing road conditions and uncertainties. The target slip is predetermined and not necessarily the peak slip for all road conditions. If the target slip is set low, stable acceleration and deceleration is guaranteed, regardless of road condition

We also study the effect of traction control on longitudinal vehicle platoon systems using simulations. The simulations include acceleration and deceleration maneuvers on an icy road. The results indicate traction control may substantially improve longitudinal platoon performance, especially when icy road conditions exist.     

Simplified and advanced modelling of traction control systems of heavy-haul locomotives

Improving tractive effort is a very complex task in locomotive design. It requires the development of not only mechanical systems but also power systems, traction machines and traction algorithms. At the initial design stage, traction algorithms can be verified by means of a simulation approach. A simple single wheelset simulation approach is not sufficient because all locomotive dynamics are not fully taken into consideration. Given that many traction control strategies exist, the best solution is to use more advanced approaches for such studies. This paper describes the modelling of a locomotive with a bogie traction control strategy based on a co-simulation approach in order to deliver more accurate results. The simplified and advanced modelling approaches of a locomotive electric power system are compared in this paper in order to answer a fundamental question. What level of modelling complexity is necessary for the investigation of the dynamic behaviours of a heavy-haul locomotive running under traction? The simulation results obtained provide some recommendations on simulation processes and the further implementation of advanced and simplified modelling approaches.