Assessment of coastal zone issues in the Republic of Korea

Abstract

The physical characteristics of Korea have had a profound impact on the uses of the coastal zone that have, in turn, been determined by and reinforced the nation's economic development strategy. While coastal zone management in many developed economies is more heavily oriented toward environmental protection and the resolution of user conflicts, policies for coastal zone management in Korea have emphasized the role of coastal space and other resources for economic development and industrial needs. Increasing demand for land reclamation to provide ever‐increasing industrial sites and human settlements, traditional and future needs of the fishery, and concern for the environment have led to a vast array of competition and, finally, often to conflicts. The basic pattern of coastal zone use in Korea has changed from the linear expansion of coastal zone to integrated coastal uses. An increased number of critical coastal zone issues and interactions was reflected in the creation of new governance that dealt with coastal zone resources and environment.     

Examining Local Coastal Zone Management Capacity in U.S. Pacific Coastal Counties

The coastal zone has critical natural, commercial, recreational, ecological, industrial, and esthetic values for current and future generations. Thus, there are increasing pressures from population growth and coastal land development. Local coastal land use planning plays an important role in implementing the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) by establishing goals and performance policies for addressing critical coastal issues. This study extends the CZMA Performance Measurement System from the national level to the local land use level by measuring coastal zone land use plan quality and political context in fifty-three Pacific coastal counties. Plan quality is measured using an evaluation protocol defined by five components and sixty-eight indicators. The results indicate a reasonable correspondence between national goals and local coastal zone land use planning goals, but a slight gap might exist between the national/state versus local levels in the overall effectiveness of coastal zone management (CZM) efforts. The results show many U.S. Pacific coastal counties lack strong coastal zone land use plans because the average plan quality score was only 22.7 out of 50 points. Although these plans set relatively clear goals and objectives, they are somewhat weaker in their factual basis, identify a limited range of the available planning tools and techniques, and establish few coordination and implementation mechanisms. The regression analysis results indicate that CZM plan quality was not significantly related to any of the jurisdictional characteristics.     

Land Changes and Conflicts Coordination in Coastal Urbanization: A Case Study of the Shandong Peninsula in China

The coastal zone is an interaction region between land and ocean and an interface of geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere, as well as greatly affected by human activities. Driven by economic activities and increased population, urbanization is rapidly developing in coastal zones, and a series of land resource and environmental conflicts have occurred, especially in developing countries at times of economic transition. This article reports a case study of the Shandong Peninsula of East China. We analyze the land-use practices and land cover changes of six cities over a timeframe of nearly a decade. We then review the management conflict issues. The most commonly encountered conflicts fall into three categories: those between expanding constructed land and decreased cultivated land; those between land resource utilization and conservation; and those between increasing demand for land and degrading land quality. All in all, they reflect the fundamental conflicts between short-term economic development gains and long-term food security and ecosystem sustainability. This article puts forward an institutional approach to coordinate these conflicts so as to realize integrated and coordinated coastal management.     

Institutions Shaping Coastal Ecosystems: The Algarve Case

Water and land use have changed dramatically over the last thirty years in Southern European coastal zones. For climatic and economic reasons coastal tourism development is often accompanied by simultaneous intensification of agricultural activity. The literature highlights a number of emerging resource pressures. The intensity of land use, excessive infrastructure development, and overexploitation of water resources pose the primary problems. Unsustainable development is often ascribed to mal-performing institutions (e.g., environmental management and land use planning), but there is a lack of studies analyzing the way in which institutions contribute to the problem. We address this gap by devising an analytical strategy that combines function analysis with the analysis of governance structures, property rights, and actors. This strategy is applied to the analysis of changes in ecosystem functions of the Portuguese coastal zone of the Algarve between the mid-eighties and today. Based on the analysis we call for an improvement of the performance of formal institutions in the Algarve. Actors in charge of implementing reformed institutions have to be given the financial and human means to implement formal property rights. Furthermore, entitlements for resource exploitation and interconnected transactions should not anymore be taken for granted. Specifically, institutions to control land use should be made more effective and incentives, that exclusively promote development, such as the construction tax, need to be questioned.     

Some economic aspects of conflicts over land use in the coastal zone

Abstract

Recent land use legislation pays particular attention to the coastal zone where age‐old conflicts have recently accelerated. Flexibility is required in policy because visible conflicts are tied into complex physical and social systems which may require changing patterns of land use over time. Public policy is altering property rights and a thorough understanding of the economic and social roles played by those rights is required. Economic models can be used to understand some major changes such as types of alteration of the environment, but may be ignored or misused unless a better understanding of coastal decision processes is developed.     

Israel's coastal program: Resource protection through management of land use

Abstract

Presently, much of Israel's 190‐kilometer‐long Mediterranean coast is either unoccupied, devoted to unsuitable uses, or is in use by activities which have no special need to be near the water's edge. This has resulted from years of lack of appreciation by policy‐makers of the coast as a valuable resource, of national development policies that directed attention to other regions, and of the relatively limited demand for coastal recreation.

In the last decade the importance of these factors has diminished. In turn, there is now mounting pressure for the development of coastal land. Increasingly, rising standards of living with a greater demand for recreational facilities, the growth of tourism as a major industry, and demands of the environmental lobby for conservation of part of the coastal land are factors bound to cause intensive change along the coast and to affect the quality of its resources. These trends have brought about public intervention in deciding the future of the coast. This paper reviews and analyzes Israel's coastal policy and its resource management programs, and also discusses the potential challenges to their full implementation.

Three types of programs were suggested as the main management tools: a coastal research and development effort, national coastal land use planning and pollution prevention, and monitoring and control programs. Major objectives of the programs were to be achieved through land use controls. Consequently, an important role is given in the development and implementation of the coastal program to agencies responsible for the management of physical land use planning and development.

Successful implementation of the management program, however, will depend on the ability of its administrators to coordinate the actions of many interests, on success in changing attitudes among decision‐makers as to the value of the coast, and on widening support for coastal resource conservation among a presently uninvolved public.     

Perceptions of the performance of state coastal zone management programs in the United States. II. Regional and state comparisons

A mail survey of coastal user groups, academics, and state coastal zone management program managers was conducted to determine the perceptions of the performance of state coastal zone management programs relative to the protection of coastal resources, the management of coastal development, the improvement of public access, and the management of coastal hazards. Information on the perceived importance of the selected issues to each of the 24 states being studied was also solicited. Findings on the perceptions of various categories of interest groups, academics, and program managers with respect to the overall performance of state coastal zone management programs in the four issue areas were presented in an earlier article, “Perceptions of the Performance of State Coastal Zone Management Programs in the United States”; (Knecht et al., 1996). The present article draws on a subset of these data—the responses from the coastal user groups and the academics—and presents the findings at the regional and individual state level. In terms of perceived performance of state coastal zone management programs on a regional basis relative to the selected issue areas, the highest rating went to the Great Lakes region for its management of public access. However, the North Atlantic region received the highest performance rating for the three other issue areas: protection of coastal resources, management of coastal development, and management of coastal hazards. Looking at state performance with regard to the coastal issues judged to be of most importance to the states—the protection of coastal resources and the management of coastal development—respondents indicated that states should improve their performance in both areas, with the greatest need related to the management of coastal development. Overall, the states of the North Atlantic, Great Lakes, and South Atlantic regions were perceived to be performing somewhat better relative to the four issue areas than the states in the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico regions. While the data do not shed light on the reasons for these regional differences, we suggest that, in the case of the Pacific region at least, the differences could be associated with higher expectations among the resident population with regard to environmental quality in general and coastal management in particular.     

Examining Residents’ Proximity,Recreational Use,and Perceptions Regarding Proposed Aquaculture Development

Competing interests related to marine resources have the potential to create conflict in the coastal zone. In many parts of the world marine farms exist in close proximity to areas that support recreation and tourism. The purpose of this study was to examine residents’ perceptions of proposed marine farm development related to their proximity to, and recreational use of, a coastal area in New Zealand. Residents from two areas were surveyed about their recreational use of the region and about perceptions related to marine farm development. Results indicated that those living closest to proposed marine farms used the area more often and in different ways, were most sensitive to marine farm development, and were less positive in their evaluations of marine farms, despite agreeing that marine farms can have positive economic consequences for nearby communities. Implications for using stakeholder input for the planning and management of marine farms are discussed.     

CZM in California: Successes and Challenges Ahead

California has a forty-year history of successful coastal zone management. The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, the California Coastal Commission, and the State Coastal Conservancy have protected and made accessible hundreds of miles of shoreline. While each agency has played a critical role, this article focuses on the Coastal Commission. Implementing the California Coastal Act, the Coastal Commission has partnered with local government, other agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the public to concentrate new development in already developed areas, and much of the rural coastal zone looks as it did in 1972. The Commission has protected and expanded public shoreline access through its regulatory actions. Using strong ecological science the Commission has protected a wide variety of sensitive habitats and wetlands. And under the authority of the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Commission has reviewed thousands of federal projects to assure that they are consistent with the Coastal Act. Challenges continue, though, including population growth, sea-level rise, and inadequate funding to update local coastal land use plans to address new issues, such as climate change adaptation. New investment is needed at the national, state, and local level to continue the success of the California program.     

Evolution of coastal hazards policies in the United States

The ocean and Great Lakes coasts of the United States are experiencing widespread economic and environmental damage from coastal flooding and erosion. During this century, public response to such coastal hazards has evolved haphazardly in response to particular disasters. Over time, however, the range of response has broadened as research has helped to refine public understanding of physical coastal processes, and specific disasters have been studied before longer term forms of institutional response have been formulated. Earlier reliance on engineered shoreline protection has been supplemented by beach nourishment, flood insurance, building and land use regulations, coastal zone planning, and other approaches. This article interprets the evolution of such public policy innovations in terms of a model that depicts the interaction of spatially differentiated systems of physical, legal, and cultural phenomena in the coastal context.     

Cooperative tourism and the coastal zone

Abstract

Most tourist development takes place in the coastal zone. Concentrated tourist use continues in spite of opposition by groups who feel that any tourism, especially international, threatens both the natural environment and local values. Although shorelines and “coastscapes”; belong to all, decisions regarding them are made by relatively few. The number of community organizations involved in coastal zone management decisions varies from almost none in some Third World countries to dozens in places like Hawaii or California. Constructive use of coastal zones requires an understanding of the interactions between biophysical and social systems. Planning tourism in this context requires that all groups with an interest in the coastal zone join in a new “cooperative tourism”; in which all contribute to decisions and face ultimate responsibilities.     

Public opinion and the environment: Ecology,the coastal zone,and public policy

Abstract

In a public opinion survey conducted in Santa Barbara county, California, respondents were interviewed regarding their feelings on coastal zone development, within a context of broader environmental and political issues.

A high degree of expressed concern for the environment was found, but the data also indicate a widespread reluctance to allocate a greater share of personal income to improve environmental quality.

Among the issues dealt with are citizen views on environmental problems, the effectiveness of government in the environmental field, offshore oil drilling, and coastal zone development.

The results show that on each of the issues analyzed, a person's education, age, and the extent of his political participation are the major factors which determine his concern for the environment. Additional variables appear to have some significance in determining attitudes toward local environmental projects and perceptions of government.

Offered are implications of the findings for the future of organized action on environmental problems.     

The Role of Universities in Supporting Integrated Coastal Management in the United Kingdom

Integrated coastal management has been seen as the way to deal with the challenges currently facing managers of our coastal zones. In the tropics, these areas are typified with resources such as coral reefs and mangroves that are able to support a variety of activities. Integrated coastal management takes a multi-disciplinary approach that involves the integration of the different institutions and stakeholder groups in the coastal zone. A survey of tropical coastal locations revealed that fully implemented integrated coastal management is limited with programs apparently failing at the implementation stage. These coastal zones share a number of common challenges exacerbated by poverty and conflicts between the coastal activities. Conflict management needs to be incorporated into the management process that pays particular attention to the overextraction of resources and destructive resource use.     

Agricultural land preservation: The case of Carlsbad,California

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to describe a program of agricultural land preservation in Carlsbad, California. This program focuses on agricultural subsidies and has been adopted and certified by the California State Coastal Commission and is scheduled for implementation on January 1, 1982.

This subsidy program is a variation of development rights transfer. Although no property rights are actually transferred, owners of land designated for agricultural use are subsidized by fees imposed on land designated for potential conversion to residential use. The Carlsbad program is placed into context by means of a brief review of similar proposals which attempt to preserve agricultural land in a fair and equitable manner.

The importance of agricultural land preservation is emphasized through discussions of urban development pressure, the significance of agriculture in the Carlsbad coastal zone, and the work of the California State Coastal Commission.     

An application of interactive management information systems to environmental planning: Coastal zone management

Recent emphasis in comprehensive planning for coastal zone regions has created the need for more effective tools for information processing and analysis to aid policymakers and planners in developing strategies for preservation of coastal zone areas. New agencies with broad powers have been created at both state and federal levels to deal with growth management in large coastal regions. However, coastal zone management (CZM) agencies have not yet been able to deal effectively with development processes. A “holding action”; is being maintained in the face of mounting pressure by developers, while planners struggle to develop (1) a data base with sufficient detail for planning; (2) a fair and rapid process for reviewing environmental impact statements and granting of development permits; and (3) a system for making the development permit application process more routine. The key to success of the CZM process is the development of a management information system (MIS) created explicitly for CZM. The prototypical system designed by the authors combines graphic display capabilities (i.e., map display) with interactive on‐line computing and large storage‐capacity computers. Problems of data structure development are documented, together with problems of assembling a large‐scale, highly detailed data base. Of particular importance is the need for well‐developed objectives and specifications for the use of computer‐based data in resolving disputes on environmental issues. A set of objectives and specifications for a prototypical coastal zone MIS is developed. The system is described in detail, showing how its capabilities directly address policy questions formulated by coastal zone planners.     

Assessment of Vulnerability and Integrated Management of Coastal Dunes in Veracruz,Mexico

Dune systems are essential to the ecological balance and sediment inputs of coastal environments and they provide numerous environmental services; however, their existence is threatened by natural and human stressors that contribute to their degradation. Future impacts are expected to be greater because of global climate change in association with further rises in sea level. Beaches and dune systems occupy large areas along the coastline of the state of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. The aim of this study is to establish the intrinsic vulnerability of nine dune fields in Veracruz to current and future impacts and to assess their integrated management status. These dune–beach systems are more vulnerable to the effects of economic activities and land use change than to those induced by natural forces. Results show that six of these dune systems have medium vulnerability and an ecological conservation policy should be adopted; the other three, with high or very high vulnerability, are candidates for a restoration policy.     

Impact of offshore oil and gas development on the coastal zone: Reforming the impact assessment process

In an otherwise complex regulatory system, the federal Environmental Impact Statement process affords local decision makers and coastal zone residents a rare opportunity to analyze the comprehensive range of land‐use and environmental issues that may arise from Offshore Continental Shelf (OCS) hydrocarbon development, while there is still time to formulate effective management strategies. As exemplified by the lease sale 40 statements, present onshore impact assessment procedures are sufficiently flawed to seriously compromise this goal. Critical deficiencies include failure to emphasize onshore impacts; insensitivity to spatial variations of impact; neglect of available data; rigid, unsupported assumptions; and preoccupation with short‐trm effects to the exclusion of more significant and dependent long‐term consequences. Suggested reforms include preparation of separate exploration and development impact statements; establishment of special Council on Environmental Quality review procedures; modification of the judicial review process; and provision of additional support to local onshore OCS impact areas.     

Role and Use of Technologies in Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Lessons from the European Demonstration Programme

Technologies are considered tools to increase the number of "available options" and to "enlarge the freedom of action" of society to achieve specific objectives. One such objective is sustainable development of the coastal zones. One way to achieve this is via integrated coastal zone management (ICZM): the integration of otherwise sectoral management activities. ICZM is not yet a widespread practice. Even in situations where integrated management is attempted, the role of technologies that might be deployed on the coastal zone to satisfy other societal needs or to provide a solution to specific problem, is not always adequately considered. True integration requires an understanding of how a technology is influenced by or impacts the surrounding natural, economic, and social environment. The present article describes an analysis of the role and use of technologies in the European Union Demonstration Programme on ICZM.     

Federal consistency and state expectations

Abstract

The requirement in the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 that federal projects be consistent with approved state coastal zone management programs is an important incentive for states to complete their programs. As a condition of program approval, states must first consult with the federal agencies concerned and provide opportunities for comment, with the hope of avoiding conflicts. The consistency requirement is also subject to various exceptions whose scope remains to be determined. One such exception of uncertain extent is the exclusion from the coastal zone of federal lands “the use of which is subject solely to the sole discretion ... of the Federal Government....”; Despite these uncertainties, however, the consistency provision represents a major change in federal policy, which has traditionally allowed federal agencies to operate largely without concern for state land or water use requirements.