GHG-emission models for assessing the eco-friendliness of road and rail freight transports

Intermodal rail/road transportation is an instrument of green logistics, which may help reducing transport related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In order to assess the environmental impact of road and rail transports, researchers have formulated very detailed microscopic models, which determine vehicle emissions precisely based on a vast number of parameters. They also developed macroscopic models, which estimate emissions more roughly from few parameters that are considered most influential. One of the goals of this paper is to develop mesoscopic models that combine the preciseness of micro-models while requiring only little more information than macro-models. We propose emission models designed for transport planning purposes which are simple to calibrate by transport managers. Despite their compactness, our models are able to reflect the influence of various traffic conditions on a transport’s total emissions. Furthermore, contrasting most papers considering either the road or the rail mode, we provide models on a common basis for both modes of transportation. We validate our models using popular micro- and macroscopic models and we apply them to artificial and real world transport scenarios to identify under which circumstances intermodal transports actually effect lower emissions. We find that travel speed and country-specific energy emission factors influence the eco-friendliness of intermodal transports most severely. Hence, the particular route chosen for a transnational intermodal transport is an important but so far neglected option for eco-friendly transportation.     

An intermodal freight transport system for optimal supply chain logistics

Complexity in transport networks evokes the need for instant response to the changing dynamics and uncertainties in the upstream operations, where multiple modes of transport are often available, but rarely used in conjunction. This paper proposes a model for strategic transport planning involving a network wide intermodal transport system. The system determines the spatio-temporal states of road based freight networks (unimodal) and future traffic flow in definite time intervals. This information is processed to devise efficient scheduling plans by coordinating and connecting existing rail transport schedules to road based freight systems (intermodal). The traffic flow estimation is performed by kernel based support vector mechanisms while mixed integer programming (MIP) is used to optimize schedules for intermodal transport network by considering various costs and additional capacity constraints. The model has been successfully applied to an existing Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) distribution network in India with encouraging results.     

A decision analysis framework for intermodal transport: Comparing fuel price increases and the internalisation of external costs

This paper presents the impact of fuel price increases on the market area of intermodal transport terminals. Aim of this research is to determine whether an increase in fuel prices is sufficient enough to raise the market area of intermodal transport to the same degree that would be accomplished by stimulating intermodal transport through policy instruments. Therefore, several fuel price scenarios are analysed in order to verify the impact of different fuel price evolutions on the market area of unimodal road transport compared to intermodal transport in Belgium. The LAMBIT-model (Location Analysis for Belgian Intermodal Terminals), which is a GIS-based model (Macharis and Pekin, 2008), is used to analyse the different fuel price increases and enables a visualisation of the impact on the market area. The LAMBIT model incorporates the different network layers for each transport mode by setting up a GIS network that includes four different layers: the road network, the rail network, the inland waterways network and the final haulage network. The geographic locations of the intermodal terminals and the port of Antwerp are added as nodes in the network and the Belgian municipality centres are defined and connected to the different network layers. Based on the different fuel price scenarios representing respectively a fuel price increase with 10% (low price case), 50% (business as usual case) and 90% (high price case), the results of the LAMBIT model show that the market areas rise in favour of intermodal barge/road and intermodal rail/road. Depending on the scenario, the degree of modal shift however differs. Additionally, in order to compare policy measures with the effect of a fuel price increase, the internalisation of the external costs is analysed with the LAMBIT model. For some years, the European Commission is supporting the idea that transportation costs should reflect the true impacts on environment and society, and is relentlessly pushing towards the so called ‘internalisation of external costs’ as a policy instrument in order to establish fair and efficient pricing of different transport modes. This requires monetarizing the external effects of transport and adding them to the already internalized costs in order to give the correct price signals. Results of this comparative analysis performed with the LAMBIT model are also presented in this paper.     

A green intermodal service network design problem with travel time uncertainty

In a more and more competitive and global world, freight transports have to overcome increasingly long distances while at the same time becoming more reliable. In addition, a raising awareness of the need for environmentally friendly solutions increases the importance of transportation modes other than road. Intermodal transportation, in that regard, allows for the combination of different modes in order to exploit their individual advantages. Intermodal transportation networks offer flexible, robust and environmentally friendly alternatives to transport high volumes of goods over long distances. In order to reflect these advantages, it is the challenge to develop models which both represent multiple modes and their characteristics (e.g., fixed-time schedules and routes) as well as the transhipment between these transportation modes. In this paper, we introduce a Green Intermodal Service Network Design Problem with Travel Time Uncertainty (GISND-TTU) for combined offline intermodal routing decisions of multiple commodities. The proposed stochastic approach allows for the generation of robust transportation plans according to different objectives (i.e., cost, time and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions) by considering uncertainties in travel times as well as demands with the help of the sample average approximation method. The proposed methodology is applied to a real-world network, which shows the advantages of stochasticity in achieving robust transportation plans.     

Traffic Noise in Europe: A Comparison of Calculation Methods,Noise Indices and Noise Standards for Road and Railroad Traffic in Europe

The demand for inland freight transport in Europe is mainly met by road transport, leading to unsustainable impacts such as air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and congestion. Since rail transport has lower externalities than road transport, a modal shift from road to rail is an accepted policy goal for achieving a more sustainable and competitive transport system. However, intermodal road–rail transport is mainly competitive for long-distance transport, and as a consequence, the potential for modal shift is limited. The cost efficiency of road–rail intermodal transport is particularly sensitive to pre- and post-haulage (PPH) costs, since this activity typically has a larger cost compared with its share of the total distance in the transport chain. For intermodal transportation over shorter distances, for example, below 300 km and where there are substantial PPH activities at both ends of the chain, the competitiveness of the intermodal transport system compared with that of direct road is low. Improving the efficiency of PPH activities is, therefore, of utmost importance for the competitiveness of the intermodal transport system. This paper looks into the issue of improving the cost efficiency of an intermodal transport chain by implementing an innovative and flexible legal framework regarding the PPH activities in the chain. By extending the legal framework with exemptions for longer vehicles in PPH, the cost efficiency could be greatly improved. The purpose of such a framework is to allow and enable, for PPH exclusively, the use of 2?×?40 foot or even two semi-trailers using only one vehicle in the context of the Swedish regulatory framework. This paper develops a strategic calculation model for assessing and investigating the consequences of such a framework and investigates the framework's potential in terms of cost efficiency. The model in combination with a sensitivity analysis of input variables gives a comprehensive understanding of the effects of PPH under different circumstances. From the results, it is evident that there are substantial positive effects associated with a PPH framework of longer vehicles. Results indicate that a typical shipper may experience cost reductions of about 5–10% of the total costs of the intermodal transport chain. In summary, a more innovative and flexible legal framework regarding vehicle length in the PPH links can contribute to a greater modal shift, improved cost efficiency and more environmentally friendly transportation systems.     

Longer and heavier vehicles in Belgium: A threat for the intermodal sector?

To achieve transport cost reductions and to reduce the environmental impact of road transport, different European countries are allowing or testing longer and heavier vehicles on their road network. In Belgium, the Flanders region started a trial in 2015 allowing a limited number of longer and heavier vehicles on a selection of approved routes. A concern among intermodal operators is however that an allowance of longer and heavier vehicles could trigger a reverse modal shift away from rail and inland waterways container transport. Starting from experiences in other European countries, this paper discusses the potential spatial impact of allowing longer and heavier vehicles on the market areas of intermodal transhipment terminals using a geographic information systems-based location analysis model. In a second step, external transport costs are incorporated in this model, to quantify the spatially diversified societal costs of a potential reverse modal shift.     

The impact of transport policies on railroad intermodal freight competitiveness – The case of Belgium

This paper discusses the impact of three freight transport policies aiming to promote railroad intermodal transport in Europe, and examines the case of Belgium as a testing ground. These policies consist in subsidizing intermodal transport operations (such as in Belgium, to stimulate rail transport), internalizing external costs (as recommended by the European Union in order to foster cleaner modes), and adopting a system perspective when optimizing the location of inland intermodal terminals. The study proposes an innovative mixed integer intermodal freight location-allocation model based on hub-location theory and deals with non-linear transport costs in order to replicate economies of distance. Our analysis suggests that subsidizing has a significant impact on the volumes transported by intermodal transport, and, to a lesser extent, that optimizing terminal location increases the competitiveness of intermodal transport. On the other hand, according to our assumptions, internalizing external costs can negatively impact the promotion of intermodality. This finding indicates that innovative last-mile transports are needed in order to reduce the external impacts of drayage operations.     

Intermodal and international freight network modeling

The authors describe the development and application of a single, integrated digital representation of a multimodal and transcontinental freight transportation network. The network was constructed to support the simulation of some five million origin to destination freight shipments reported as part of the 1997 United States Commodity Flow Survey. The paper focuses on the routing of the tens of thousands of intermodal freight movements reported in this survey. Routings involve different combinations of truck, rail and water transportation. Geographic information systems (GIS) technology was invaluable in the cost-effective construction and maintenance of this network and in the subsequent validation of mode sequences and route selections. However, computationally efficient routing of intermodal freight shipments was found to be most efficiently accomplished outside the GIS. Selection of appropriate intermodal routes required procedures for linking freight origins and destinations to the transportation network, procedures for modeling intermodal terminal transfers and inter-carrier interlining practices, and a procedure for generating multimodal impedance functions to reflect the relative costs of alternative, survey reported mode sequences.     

Entropy-based estimation of transfers in a terminal

An intermodal transportation terminal is a facility that provides commuters with easy transfer between transit modes and providers such as buses, light rail, subway, taxis, airport shuttles, and commuter rail. The probability of a passenger transferring from one mode to another and the estimation of total transfer demand are of great importance to both practitioners and researchers when determining optimal design alternatives as well as the best control and management policies for daily operation of the terminal. This article presents a study that uses an entropy-based optimization approach to estimate the transfer demands between the available transportation modes in an intermodal transportation terminal. The development and calibration of the entropy model is presented in the first part of the article, which is followed by a case study of the SiHui Intermodal Terminal in Beijing, China.     

Evaluating gravel transport sustainability: A case study of Taiwan’s northeast corridor

We use social-eco-efficient analysis in the form of SEEbalance to evaluate gravel transport sustainability for trucking and two kinds of intermodal transportation. Results show that switching from trucks to intermodal transportation can improve the sustainability of gravel transportation in the northeast corridor of Taiwan. Sensitivity analysis shows that rail combined with truck intermodal transportation has competitive advantage despite the terminal’s location factor.     

Distance and time in intermodal goods transport networks in Europe: A generic approach

This paper is about distance and time as factors of competitiveness of intermodal transport. It reviews the relevance of the factors, evaluates time models in practice, compares network distances and times in alternative bundling networks with geometrically varied layouts, and points out how these networks perform in terms of vehicle scale, frequency and door-to-door time. The analysis focuses on intermodal transport in Europe, especially intermodal rail transport, but is in search for generic conclusions. The paper does not incorporate the distance and time results in cost models, and draws conclusions for transport innovation, wherever this is possible without cost modelling. For instance, the feature vehicle scale, an important factor of transport costs, is analysed and discussed.Distance and time are important factors of competitiveness of intermodal transport. They generate (direct) vehicle costs and – via transport quality – indirect costs to the customers. Clearly direct costs/prices are the most important performance of the intermodal transport system. The relevance of quality performances is less clarified. Customers emphasise the importance of a good match between the transport and the logistic system. In this framework (time) reliability is valued high. Often transport time, arrival and departure times, and frequency have a lower priority. But such conclusions can hardy be generalised. The range of valuations reflects the heterogeneity of situations. Some lack of clarity is obviously due to overlapping definitions of different performance types.The following parts of the paper are about two central fields of network design, which have a large impact on transport costs and quality, namely the design of vehicle roundtrips (and acceleration of transport speed) and the choice of bundling type: do vehicles provide direct services or run in what we call complex bundling networks? An example is the hub-and-spoke network. The objective of complex bundling is to increase vehicle scale and/or transport frequency even if network volumes are restricted. Complex bundling requires intermediate nodes for the exchange of load units. Examples of complex bundling networks are the hub-and-spoke network or the line network.Roundtrip and bundling design are interrelated policy fields: an acceleration of the roundtrip speed, often desirable from the cost point of view, can often only be carried out customer friendly, if the transport frequency is increased. But often the flow size is not sufficient for a higher frequency. Then a change of bundling model can be an outcome.Complex bundling networks are known to have longer average distances and times, the latter also due to the presence of additional intermediate exchange nodes. However, this disadvantage is – inside the limits of maximal vehicle sizes – overruled by the advantage of a restricted number of network links. Therefore generally, complex bundling networks have shorter total vehicle distances and times. This expression of economies of scale implies lower vehicle costs per load unit.The last part of the paper presents door-to-door times of load units of complex bundling networks and compares them with unimodal road transport. The times of complex bundling networks are larger than that of networks with direct connections, but nevertheless competitive with unimodal road transport, except for short distances.     

An assessment of the performance of the European long intermodal freight trains (LIFTS)

Intermodal rail/road freight transport has always been considered as a competitive alternative to its road freight counterpart in the European medium- to long-distance corridors (markets). Such consideration has been based on the increasing competitiveness of some innovative rail services and the existing and prospective performance of both modes in terms of the full social – internal or operational and external – costs. The most recent innovation of rail technologies and related services launched by some European railway companies, still at the conceptual level, is the Long Intermodal Freight Train (LIFT). This is supposed to be a block train operating in long-distance corridors (markets) with a substantial and regular freight demand.This paper develops analytical models for assessing the performance of the LIFTs, the already-operating Conventional Intermodal Freight Trains (CIFTs), and their road counterpart as well. The performance consists of the full – internal (private) and external – costs of the door-to-door delivery of loading units – containers, swap-bodies, and semi-trailers. The internal costs embrace the operational costs of the transport (rail and road) and intermodal terminal operators. The external costs include the costs of the impacts of door-to-door delivery of loading units on society and the environment. These negative externalities include noise, air pollution, traffic accidents, and congestion.The models are applied to a simplified version of intermodal and road transport system using inputs from the European freight transport sector. The aims are to compare the full costs of particular modalities in order to investigate the potential of the LIFTs as compared with the CIFTs in improving the internal efficiency of the rail freight sector and its competitiveness with respect to its road counterpart. In addition, the paper attempts to assess some effects on the potential modal shift of EU (European Union) transport policies on internalizing transport externalities.     

高铁运输对广西港口物流的促进作用探析

随着湘桂高铁、贵广高铁、南广高铁、云桂高铁的建成,广西逐步进入高铁时代。广西高铁的发展给广西北部湾港口群带来了新的生机,高铁与港口货物联运是未来广西北部湾港口物流发展的新趋势。文章分析了广西港口与高铁联运的有利条件以及高铁运输对港口物流的促进作用,从技术标准缺乏、货物分运混乱、物流成本偏高等方面阐述了港口与高铁联运存在的现实问题,并提出了相应对策。     

External costs of the Belgian interurban freight traffic: a network analysis of their internalisation

The strong expansion of freight road transports throughout Europe is an important source of congestion and pollution, as well as a cause of many accidents. To solve this problem will require the conjunction of many different remedies. One element of solution would be the promotion and substitution of transportation modes with less negative effects. This paper is focused on this solution. It presents some results obtained from a detailed GIS modelling of the Belgian multimodal freight transport network inserted within the overall trans-European network. It outlines the results of a simulation of the flows over the Belgian network in 1995 which allows to estimate some of the costs of several external effects of freight transports: the costs of pollution, congestion, accidents, noise and road damages. This paper provides also the simulated impacts on modal choice of a marginal external cost internalisation, and an estimation of the corresponding external cost savings.     

Gantry crane operations to transfer containers between trains: A simulation study of a Spanish terminal

Freight transfer operations are critical in combined transport networks. In this paper a simulation model and modelling approach to the transfer of cargo between trains at rail terminals is presented. The model is used to study the Port-Bou terminal, the main intermodal terminal at the Spanish-French frontier. Four different gantry crane operation modes to interchange containers between trains are evaluated. These operation rules are tested in several scenarios to examine the critical factors of the system and the best operation rule for each situation. Latest generation software is used to develop the model that incorporates modular programming and enhanced graphic systems for output representation. It allows a dynamic display of the simulated system and, likewise, the possibility of developing modules that can be reused in other studies. The research shows how simulation can be a useful planning tool in the rail transportation context.     

Positive impact of distribution centres on the environment

The transport sector in general, and trucks in particular, generates a significant amount of emissions in Australia. It appears the trend will escalate unless different measures are taken to reduce the reliance of freight transport on trucks. This paper discusses the benefits of distribution centres as a means to reduce road congestion, increase safety, protect the environment by reducing atmospheric pollution and improve freight distribution. It also provides the effective use of the existing rail network and its infrastructure and improves the lead-time as well as lowering the cost of transportation of cargo. It also investigates the positive impact of distribution centres located near to manufacturing and farming production units. A simulation model has been developed and used to help determine the amount of atmospheric pollution produced by two modes of land transport, rail and road, for the movement of containers between port and destination. Results derived from the model provide evidence about a preferred land-transport regime. The paper has two sections: (1) the role of distribution centres in the chain of transport and (2) the impact of distribution centres on the environment. The first section investigates the feasibility of the implementation of distribution centres in the State of Victoria with respect to rail line capacity and location allocation. The second section presents an additional simulation model that investigates the role of a distribution centre in relation to the amount of atmospheric pollution produced by rail and road, while containers are carried between port and destination.     

Estimating the CO2 intensity of intermodal freight transportation

This paper looks at the environmental effects of shifting from road to rail freight transportation. Little data is available to shippers to calculate the potential CO₂ savings of an intermodal shift. In this paper we analyze a data set of more than 400,000 intermodal shipments to calculate the CO₂ intensity of intermodal transportation as a distinct mode. Our results indicate an average intensity of 67 g of CO₂ per ton-mile, but can vary between 29 and 220 g of CO₂ per ton-mile depending on the specific origin–destination lane. We apply the market area concept to explain the variance between individual lane intensities and demonstrate the complexity in predicting the potential carbon savings in a switch from truckload to intermodal.     

High-Speed Rail Operations on an Existing Network: An Assessment Model for China

High-speed rail operations have the potential to reduce the long-term decline in rail passenger travel demand for the medium to long distance inter-urban markets. Such decline has been evident through most of the industrialized countries where air and road transport tend to be the dominant modes. In China, the operations of long distance high-speed rail on fully dedicated track is not very easy to implement, due to the high proportion of passengers who travel between high-speed and conventional railways. An alternative approach would be to allow for mixed operations with trains of various speeds on the same track. This article puts forward a simulation model designed to allow an evaluation of the most efficient distance for high-speed rail operations under mixed train speed scenarios. The model takes into account the main operating parameters such as passenger volumes, train speeds, capital and maintenance costs, train operating costs and energy consumption. The distance of high-speed train running on conventional rail that will yield the most economic benefit can be estimated using the model. The article includes the results of using the model for a specific example. It is concluded that large-scale high-speed trains have the potential to be successfully operated on conventional rail networks.     

Internalization of Transportation External Costs: Impact Analysis of Logistics Company Mode and Route Choices

Abstract

This study focuses on the mode and route choices of a logistics company in a situation involving intercity transportation with networks of surface roads, highways and a railway. A method of transportation network analysis is applied to construct a logistics company mode and route choice models with the objective of minimizing total distribution and external costs. This study also assumes that the fleet number and vehicle capacities are given. Freight distributed from a distribution center to given retailers or consumers via surface road/highway links or via intermodal transportation involving surface road/highway links and a railway. In terms of model construction, this study first explores the routing and sequence of the retailers and consumers served by each vehicle. Second, the study internalizes the external cost of air pollution into the total distribution cost, to analyze the influences of external cost burdens on a logistics company mode and route choices from a user charge perspective. Finally, the study designs a heuristic algorithm for solving the above models, and illuminates the modeling process using a numerical example.     

Comparing carbon dioxide emissions of trucking and intermodal container transport in Taiwan

This paper examines carbon dioxide emissions of truck-only transportation using activity-based emission modelling and compares those with intermodal coastal shipping and truck movements. The results reveal that replacing long-haul truck transport with the intermodal can significantly reduce carbon dioxide emission significantly because of the efficiency of maritime fuel.