Effects of Human Activities on the World's Most Vulnerable Coral Reefs: Comoros Case Study

Effective management of highly biodiverse and threatened reefs requires the identification of human activities driving declines on the particular reef to be managed. The island nation of the Comoros is a model setting to investigate effects of human activities on diverse and threatened coral reefs, with abundant and diverse marine life, local dependence on reef resources, and a variety of anthropogenic pressures on reefs rendering the nation vulnerable to coral reef degradation. Using data from 21 sites throughout the Comoros, we evaluated the relative influence of human activities and other natural and anthropogenic factors on benthic cover and fish richness, abundance, and biomass with the goal of providing prioritized management targets. Human activities including fishing, beach sand extraction, and beachfront housing and development had the strongest relationship with degraded reefs but with some seasonal fluctuation, while geographic patterns most consistently predicted reef degradation across seasons. Comparing analyses conducted with and without human activities as predictors, the inclusion of human activities greatly improved explanatory power. Baseline data on reef biotic composition and localized anthropogenic impacts, monitoring over time, and controlled experiments can facilitate an adaptive management approach for protecting fragile reef ecosystems in the Comoros and elsewhere.     

Governance for Sustainable Coastal Futures

The mobile nature of soft coasts means that coastal communities face uncertainty in their property values and peace of mind when the existing coastal defense is lowered or removed. The acceptance by the U.K. government that coastal realignment in areas of low population density and limited ecological value is unavoidable means that the current state of affairs, where coastal residents have broadly come to assume that they will be defended if they make enough fuss, cannot continue. The government is currently unwilling to confront this consternation and continues to refuse to pay compensation for lost property value. This is creating an outcry over loss of fairness of treatment. This dispute raises important questions of governance for coastal change. This participatory research project worked closely with English Nature, North Norfolk District Council, local residents associations, the Environment Agency, and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. What emerged in the analysis were unresolved tensions between national strategic frameworks, emerging planning arrangements, changing economic assessments, and the desirability of delivering, through a number of public and voluntary agencies, local flexibility in participation and in coastal design. This article reports on the research process, the challenges for coastal governance, and the scope for creative partnerships between science, planning, policy delivery, and public acceptance.     

The coastal edge of the Northeast Water polynya in spring 1993

Multidisciplinary, marine ecological observations were conducted at the shallow water edge of the Northeast Water in June, 1993. Although variable in size and shape, a small polynya was constantly present at Eskimonaes, at the fast-ice edge of Ingolfsfjord. A shallow stratified layer developed at the water sufface at negative water and air temperatures—an effect of sea ice melting in cold water early in the season. Nutrients were recorded in considerable quantities, although by mid July NO₃ had become depleted. The chlorophyll and phytoplankton maxima at 8–12 m depth had peak values of 2 mg chl a m⁻³, typical for Arctic algal blooms. The phytoplankton included over 90 species and was dominated by the Fragillariopsis group. Zooplankton was poor in biomass and density, but over 23 taxa were found, with the copepods Oithona similis and Pseudocalanus acuspes being numerically dominant. Sedimentation was approximately 0.2 g dry weight m⁻² d⁻¹ and suspended matter concentrations ranged from 4 to 19 mg l⁻¹. The benthos was represented by hard bottom forms only, with a surprisingly dense cover of macrophytes. Juvenile sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis), brittle stars (Ophiocten sericeum) and amphipods were dominant. Higher trophic levels were represented by benthic feeders, such as eiders and walruses. The area observed was more similar to high Arctic fjord ecosystems than to the offshore central Northeast Water polynya.     

Variability of snow and ice thermal, physical and optical properties pertinent to sea ice algae biomass during spring

Changes in the thermal, physical and optical properties of the snow–sea ice system and feedbacks between various temporal and spatial scales affect accumulation of microalgae at the sea ice bottom and are the focus of this research. During the spring transition period, May 4 to June 9, 2002, we closely monitored atmospheric conditions and properties of the snow–sea ice system, including thermal, physical and optical properties of the snow cover (e.g., temperature, grain size, light attenuation), ice thickness and salinity, and biomass of bottom ice algae. Results show that snowdrift size averaged 31.2 by 10.6 m with a depth range of 2 to 45 cm. Snowpacks also varied in age, distinguished by coincident peaks of snow salinity and grain size and a lower PAR extinction coefficient. Spatial variability of the snowpack was superimposed by temporal variability associated with seasonal snow–ice melt and wind redistribution of snow. Maximum biomass of ice algae was observed under intermediate snow covers. Under thin snow covers, algae biomass declined steadily coincident with seasonal warming and desalination of the ice cover. Under thick snow covers, algae biomass was negatively correlated with snow depth. These results suggest that thin snow covers were associated with a thermal effect causing sloughing of algae, whereas under deep snow, algae were still light limited and thermally insulated from the warming atmosphere. Our results highlight the importance of snow cover history on the sea ice system operating below. Furthermore, in the context of current climate change scenarios, shifts in snow depth would result in decreases of ice algae biomass.     

Financing Beach Improvements: Comparing Two Approaches on the Georgia Coast

Fifty-five percent of Georgia's developed coastline has been armored with various types of erosion protection devices. This article is about beach improvement projects at Jekyll Island that would operate under (a) a nourishment policy or (b) a retreat policy. Benefits are calculated from an intensive, on-site survey of beach visitors and the costs are calculated from observable sources. Two financing methods are considered: general revenue and user fee financing. The analyses imply recommending beach improvement as an effective policy within the considered time frame.     

滨海核电大件码头用于乏燃料运输的改造内容

海运在内的多模式联运体系是未来乏燃料外运的发展方向。我国滨海核电厂在初期就规划、设计和建设了用于运输核电厂大件设备的码头,多模式联运体系可利用核电码头转运乏燃料。为满足乏燃料转运需要,经调研和分析,结合船舶靠离泊等条件进行综合评价,梳理出核电码头的改造内容。结果表明,各核电业主应聚焦核材料实物保护、船舶靠离泊条件、货包接卸工艺等方面,围绕码头平面尺度及结构、作业工艺、辅助生产设施和管理体系等内容开展核电大件码头的改造工作,以确保未来乏燃料能够及时外运。     

International regulation of liability for multimodal transport

The establishment of a widely acceptable uniform international legal framework for multimodal transport has proven to be extremely difficult. In spite of attempts by various international organizations, following the advent of container revolution, there is still no uniform international legal regime in force to govern liability for loss, damage or delay arising from multimodal transportation. In 2002 the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) embarked on the elaboration of a draft instrument to cover contracts for the international carriage of goods. The Draft Instrument, which had been prepared to govern sea transport, is proposed also to cover multimodal transport involving a sea leg.     

Vulnerability of Coastal Resort Cities to Mean Sea Level Rise in the Mexican Caribbean

We evaluated the potential economic impacts of increasing sea level rise (SLR) along the Mexican Caribbean where there are major gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms controlling flooding duration and frequency associated to future ecological and economic impacts. We determined the negative economic impact of SLR on infrastructure in the largest urban centers (Cancun, Isla Mujeres, Playa del Carmen, Puerto Morelos and Cozumel) in the state of Quintana Roo (Mexico) that are considered the largest tourism “hot spots” (resort cities) in the country. The tourism industry in this coastal area injects >8 billion dollars year^?1 to the Mexican economy. Our conservative economic assessment regarding the impact of SLR, under a 1?m scenario for all coastal cities is $330 million USD. Further projections for worst scenarios (SLR >2 m) show a non-linear trend where the cost of inaction can reach up to $1.4 billion USD (2?m SLR scenario) and $2.3 billion USD (3?m SLR scenario). This potential loss of infrastructure, as construction cost, is staggering and represents a robust baseline to start evaluating with more detail future impacts of climate variability and change on the Mexican Caribbean coastline.     

Introduction to the Theme Issue: The Role of Geography in Contemporary Coastal Management Policy and Practice

This article provides a brief introduction to the theme issue on “The role of geography in contemporary coastal management policy and practice.” The theme is addressed through a suite of seven articles that collectively consider how geographical understandings and methods relate to contemporary coastal policy and practice. The key theme to emerge from the articles is that geography forms an underlying framework for considering integrated coastal management, largely due to the integrative nature of geography itself.     

Winter–spring dynamics in sea-ice carbon cycling in the coastal Arctic Ocean

An understanding of microbial interactions in first-year sea ice on Arctic shelves is essential for identifying potential responses of the Arctic Ocean carbon cycle to changing sea-ice conditions. This study assessed dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC, POC), exopolymeric substances (EPS), chlorophyll a, bacteria and protists, in a seasonal (24 February to 20 June 2004) investigation of first-year sea ice and associated surface waters on the Mackenzie Shelf. The dynamics of and relationships between different sea-ice carbon pools were investigated for the periods prior to, during and following the sea-ice-algal bloom, under high and low snow cover. A predominantly heterotrophic sea-ice community was observed prior to the ice-algal bloom under high snow cover only. However, the heterotrophic community persisted throughout the study with bacteria accounting for, on average, 44% of the non-diatom particulate carbon biomass overall the study period. There was an extensive accumulation of sea-ice organic carbon following the onset of the ice-algal bloom, with diatoms driving seasonal and spatial trends in particulate sea-ice biomass. DOC and EPS were also significant sea-ice carbon contributors such that sea-ice DOC concentrations were higher than, or equivalent to, sea-ice-algal carbon concentrations prior to and following the algal bloom, respectively. Sea-ice-algal carbon, DOC and EPS-carbon concentrations were significantly interrelated under high and low snow cover during the algal bloom (r values ≥ 0.74, p < 0.01). These relationships suggest that algae are primarily responsible for the large pools of DOC and EPS-carbon and that similar stressors and/or processes could be involved in regulating their release. This study demonstrates that DOC can play a major role in organic carbon cycling on Arctic shelves.     

Land use implications of sea level rise: A case study at myrtle beach,South Carolina

Abstract

the prospect of global warming and consequent sea level rise will have important implications for coastal communities. this article examines the land use implications of alternate sea level rise scenarios on the city of myrtle beach, south carolina. current trends as well as high and low sea level rise scenarios are superimposed on the city's beach profile and near shore contours to estimate the type and value of land development likely to be impacted.

It is found that losses associated with accelerated sea level rise would be particularly high in the city's hotel district and that overall property loss could range from 21 to 60% of the city's total property value. to lessen these potential losses, coastal communities such as myrtle beach must choose among one of three policy options including: (1) barricade the beach, (2) raise the land, and (3) implement a strategic retreat. specific alternatives within each of these options are explored in turn. the article concludes that successful development plans will incorporate ground rules sensitive to and consistent with dynamic coastal processes.     

A Football Field Lost Every 45 Minutes: Evaluating Local Capacity to Implement Louisiana's Coastal Master Plan

As Louisiana continues to experience substantial coastal wetland loss—at the rate of a football field every 45 min—and multiple disasters, state and federal officials struggle with implementing restoration plans in this highly productive ecosystem. The 2007 Louisiana Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast is the first large-scale restoration plan in the United States to incorporate hazard mitigation. However, there is no mandate for local governments to adhere to this plan. Building upon the planning quality and evaluation literature, this study analyzes comprehensive land use plans in Louisiana's coastal zone to systematically assess the quality of the plans within the context of a non-mandated, $50 billion large-scale state restoration plan. Results indicate a great disparity in plan quality; a majority of the local governments lack the capacity to implement the nonstructural programmatic elements of the state's plan. The study concludes with a discussion and recommendations for practice and future research.     

关于影响抽真空质量因素的探讨

目前大量的沿海区域城市开始逐渐发展围海造陆工程,以创造出更多的建筑用地。目前地基处理方法中常用的是堆载预压法、复合地基处理法和真空预压法等方法。本文结合工程实例,分析真空预压抽真空阶段质量控制的重点及通病。     

Distribution of plankton lipids and their role in the biological transformation of Antarctic primary production

Production and transfer of lipid through the Antarctic food web is reviewed for the Indian Ocean sector. The slow settling fine particles showed a marked inter-annual variability in biochemical composition with an increase in lipid content as % organic carbon. Comparison of the fatty acid spectra of different size categories of organic particles indicated that fine particles are dominated by saturated, monoenoic and branched acids, while larger material (50–100 μm, 200–500 μm net collected fractions) displayed a signature dominated by polyunsaturated acids. Zooplankton taxa displayed different strategies of lipid accumulation. Lipid content was highest in Thysanoessa macrura females and copepodite stages of Calanus propinquus. Relatively low levels were recorded for juveniles and male stages of euphausiids. Reserve lipids varied with species: C. propinquus showed equal content of triglycerides and wax esters, T. macrura showed a dominance of wax esters and Euphausia superba and Themisto gaudichaudii accumulated only triglycerides. Computed as carbon equivalent and integrated over 200 m, lipids in slow settling particles represented 22.6% of annual primary production. Similar computation with mesozooplankton and E. superba data on biomass and population structure from several summer cruises indicated values of carbon accumulation as lipid reserves and egg production of 4.2 and 0.1% of annual primary production for copepods and 4.4 and 3.8% for E. superba. When all trophic levels are considered, the overall mean exceeded 30% of annual primary production.     

Size-fractionated phytoplankton biomass and species composition in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean during austral summer

During the late austral summer of 1994, Antarctic waters were characterized by low phytoplankton biomass. Along the 62°E meridian transect, between 49°S and 67°S, chlorophyll (Chl.) a concentration in the upper 150 m was on average 0.2 mg m⁻³. However, in the Seasonal Ice Zone (SIZ) chlorophyll a concentrations were higher, with a characteristic deep chlorophyll maximum. The highest value (0.6 mg Chl. a m⁻³) was measured at the Antarctic Divergence, 64°S, corresponding to the depth of the temperature minimum (100 m). This deep biomass maximum decreased from South to North, disappeared in the Permanently Open Ocean Zone (POOZ) and reappeared with less vigour in the vicinity of the Polar Front Zone (PFZ). In the SIZ, the upper mixed layer was shallow, biomass was higher and the >10 μm fraction was predominant. In this zone the >10 μm, 2–10 μm and <2 μm size fractions represented on the average 46%, 25.1% and 28.9% of the total integrated Chl. a stock in the upper 100 m, respectively. The phytoplankton assemblage was diverse, mainly composed of large diatoms and dinoflagellate cells which contributed 42.7% and 33.1% of the autotrophic carbon biomass, respectively. Moving northwards, in parallel with the decrease in biomass, the biomass of autotrophic pico- and nanoflagellates (mainly Cryptophytes) increased steadily. In the POOZ, the picoplanktonic size fraction contributed 47.4% of the total integrated Chl. a stock. A phytoplankton community structure with low biomass and picoplankton-dominated assemblage in the POOZ contrasted with the relatively rich, diverse and diatom-dominated assemblage in the SIZ. These differences reflect the spatial and temporal variations prevailing in the Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystem.     

Managing Shoreline Change Under Increasing Sea-Level Rise in Ghana

Relative sea-level rise will affect vulnerable coastal communities globally. Quantifying this effect on the coastal environment and infrastructure provides critical information that enables coastal managers to develop sustainable mitigation and adaptation measures. Modeling applications have enabled the past, present, and future trends in shoreline morphology to be investigated in detail. Predictive numerical models depend largely on the reliability of the input data. This article reports on using the Soft Cliff and Platform Erosion (SCAPE) numerical model to simulate future shoreline evolution trend in the central Accra coast in Ghana. The model input parameters include historic shoreline recession rates, wave data, tidal data, bathymetry, beach volume, beach topography, historic relative sea-level rise rates, and the shoreline orientation. The data fed the SCAPE numerical model which simulated the emergence of soft rock shore profiles over timescale of decades to centuries, to project future positions of the central Accra shoreline for the next 100 years under different scenarios of climate change. Simulated future shoreline positions overlaid on a 2005 orthophoto map of Accra enabled vulnerable areas and infrastructure at risk to be identified. It emerged that a highly populated community in central Accra will be inundated by 2065, while the Rivera beach resort will be eroded from 2035. A natural fish landing site in Osu (suburb in Accra) will be lost from 2045. The study has demonstrated that considerable ecological, economic, social, and national losses should be expected within the next century. Shoreline change management options should be explored to help mitigate the expected impact of the sea-level rise.     

Champions as Influencers of Science Uptake into Australian Coastal Zone Policy

Australia's coastal environments are exposed to great pressures. Adequate policy and management measures are required to ensure the protection of coastal assets now and for future generational use. However, recent government reports and academic literature have highlighted that improved science uptake into policy is needed to ensure coastal communities are protected from impacts such as climate change. The literature suggests that individuals, coined champions, can play an important role in influencing the use of science by policymakers. However, a paucity of research exists surrounding the role of these individuals. This research explores the role of champions in enabling science uptake into policy in the Australian coastal zone, investigating champion characteristics and strategies used in influencing policymakers. A mixed-methods approach to the research was employed, integrating a paper/online survey of people involved in Australian coastal management and in-depth, semi-structured interviews with champions nominated by their peers from the survey. Fourteen key coastal champion characteristics were identified from the survey. Furthermore, the champion interviews identified strategies for influencing science use by policymakers. From these findings a conceptual model was created. In order to enable coastal champions to be fostered, a six-step process was developed that incorporates the use of the conceptual model.     

Time-series analysis of remote-sensed chlorophyll and environmental factors in the Santa Monica–San Pedro Basin off Southern California

The time-series of remote-sensed surface chlorophyll concentration measured by SeaWiFS radiometer from September 1997 to December 2001 and the relevant hydrological and meteorological factors (remote-sensed sea surface temperature, atmospheric precipitation, air temperature and wind stress) in Santa Monica Bay and adjacent waters off southern California were analyzed using wavelet and cross-correlation statistical methods. All parameters exhibited evident seasonal patterns of variation. Wavelet analysis revealed salient long-term variations most evident in air temperature during El Niño 1997–1998 and in wind stress during La Niña 1998–1999. Short-period (<100 days) variations of remote-sensed chlorophyll biomass were mostly typical to spring seasons. Chlorophyll biomass was significantly correlated with air temperature and wind stress: an increase of chlorophyll biomass followed with 5–6-day time lag an increase of wind stress accompanied by a simultaneous decrease of air temperature. The mechanism of these variations was an intensification of phytoplankton growth resulting from the mixing of water column by wind stress and entrainment of nutrients into the euphotic layer.     

Egg production and associated losses of carbon, nitrogen and fatty acids from maternal biomass in Calanus finmarchicus before the spring bloom

We present concurrent data on ingestion, egg production and the loss of maternal biomass in pre-spring bloom female Calanus finmarchicus incubated under conditions representative of those in situ in the North Atlantic. A balanced metabolic budget was constructed and used to examine the relative importance of ingestion and biomass for fuelling egg production during the incubations. Ingested carbon was not sufficient to meet the observed demands for egg production. More than 80% of the carbon utilised by the females was instead derived from their biomass. Fatty acid analysis demonstrated that the storage reserves, 20:1 (n−9) and 22:1 (n−11), were virtually absent before experimentation began, and therefore could not have been used to supply the carbon required for egg production during the incubations. The C:N mass-specific ratio of the biomass utilised was 4.1, suggesting that the females had instead catabolised protein in order to meet their metabolic demands. These results suggest that C. finmarchicus adopts a sacrificial reproductive strategy when food availability is low.     

Can Coastal Management Programs Protect and Promote Water-Dependent Uses?

Anecdotal evidence indicates that commercial and recreational water-dependent uses have been under development pressure in recent years, and in some cases have been converted to other uses. The conversion of water-dependent uses, which range from commercial shipyards to recreational marinas, may have many public costs, including the loss of access to public trust waters, the loss of jobs and associated economic activity, and the loss of traditional working waterfronts. This two-part study investigated the role of five coastal management programs in the northeastern United States in managing, monitoring, and protecting water-dependent uses. First, coastal managers in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and New Jersey were interviewed to assess the conversion problem. Second, in collaboration with New York City-based Regional Plan Association, follow-up interviews were conducted with coastal managers and local planners in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey to gain greater insight into the role of coastal management programs and local governments in managing and promoting water-dependent uses. This article presents select findings from this study and discusses recommendations for improving the capacity of coastal management programs and local governments to manage water-dependent uses for the benefit of the public.