Exhaust nanoparticle emissions from internal combustion engines: A review

This paper reviews the particle emissions formed during the combustion process in spark ignition and diesel engine. Proposed legislation in Europe and California will impose a particle number requirement for GDI (gasoline direct injection) vehicles and will introduce the Euro 6 and LEV-III emission standards. More careful optimization for reducing particulate emission on engine hardware, fuel system, and control strategy to reduce particulate emissions will be required during cold start and warm-up phases. Because The diesel combustion inherently produces significant amounts of PM as a result of incomplete combustion around individual fuel droplets in the combustion zone, much attention has been paid to reducing particle emissions through electronic engine control, high pressure injection systems, combustion chamber design, and exhaust after-treatment technologies. In this paper, recent research and development trends to reduce the particle emissions from internal combustion engines are summarized, with a focus on PMP activity in EU, CARB and SAE papers and including both state-of-the-art light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty engines.     

Operating strategy for gasoline/diesel dual-fuel premixed compression ignition in a light-duty diesel engine

Environmental problems have become a major issue for diesel engine development. Although emission aftertreatment systems such as DPFs (diesel particulate filters), LNTs (lean NOx traps) and SCR (selective catalytic reduction) have been used in diesel vehicles, the manufacturing cost increase caused by this equipment can be hard to be control. Thus, it is better for engine emissions to be reduced by improving the combustion system. A dual-fuel combustion concept is a recommended method to improve a combustion system and effectively reduce emissions. Low reactivity fuel including gasoline and natural gas, which was supplied to the intake port by the FPI (port fuel injector), improved the premixed air-fuel mixture conditions before ignition. Additionally, a small amount of high reactivity fuel, in this case diesel, was injected into the cylinder directly as an ignition source. This dual-fuel combustion promises lower levels of NOx (nitrogen oxide) and PM (particulate matter) emissions due to the elimination of local rich regions in the cylinder. However, it is challenging to control the dual-fuel combustion because the combustion stability and efficiency deteriorate due to the lack of ignition source and reactivity. Thus, it is important to establish an appropriate dual-fuel operating strategy to achieve stable, high efficiency and low emission operation. As a result of this research, a detailed operating method of dual-fuel PCI (premixed compression ignition) was introduced in detail at a low speed and low load condition by using a single cylinder diesel engine. Engine operating parameters including the gasoline ratio, a diesel injection strategy consisting of multiple injectors and timing, the EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) rate and the intake pressure were controlled to satisfy the low ISNOx (indicated specific NOx) and PM emissions levels (0.21 g/kWh and 0.1 FSN, 0.040 g/kWh, respectively) as per the EURO-6 regulation without any after-treatment systems. The results emphasized that a well-constructed dual-fuel PCI operating strategy showed low NOx and PM emissions and high GIE (gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency) with excellent combustion stability.     

Effects of gasoline, diesel, LPG, and low-carbon fuels and various certification modes on nanoparticle emission characteristics in light-duty vehicles

This study was focused on experimental comparisons of the effects of various vehicle certification modes on particle emission characteristics of light-duty vehicles with gasoline, diesel, LPG, and low-carbon fuels such as bio-diesel, bioethanol, and compressed natural gas, respectively. The particulate matter from various fueled vehicles was analyzed with the golden particle measurement system recommended by the particle measurement programme, which consists of CVS, a particle number counter, and particle number diluters. To verify particle number and size distribution characteristics, various vehicle emission certification modes such as NEDC, FTP-75, and HWFET were compared to evaluate particle formation with both CPC and DMS500. The formation of particles was highly dependent on vehicle speed and load conditions for each mode. In particular, the particle numbers of conventional fuels and low-carbon fuels sharply increased during cold start, fast transient acceleration, and high-load operation phases of the vehicle emission tests. A diesel vehicle fitted with a particulate filter showed substantial reduction of particulate matter with a number concentration equivalent to gasoline and LPG fuel. Moreover, bio-fuels and natural gas have the potential to reduce the particulate emissions with the help of clean combustion and low-carbon fuel quality compared to non-DPF diesel-fueled vehicles.     

Experimental investigation and comparison of nanoparticle emission characteristics in light-duty vehicles for two different fuels

In recent years, particle number emissions rather than particulate mass emissions in automotive engines have become the subject with controversial discussions. Recent results from studies of health effects imply that it is possible that particulate mass does not properly correlate with the variety of health effects attributed to engine exhaust. The concern is now focusing on nano-sized particles emitted from I. C. engines. In this study, particulate mass and particle number concentration emitted from light-duty vehicles were investigated for a better understanding of the characteristics of the engine PM from different types of fuels, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. Engine nano-particle mass and size distributions of four test vehicles were measured by a condensation particle counter system, which is recommended by the particle measurement program in Europe (PMP), at the end of a dilution tunnel along a NEDC test mode on a chassis dynamometer. We found that particle number concentrations of diesel passenger vehicles with DPF system are lower than gasoline passenger vehicles, but PM mass has some similar values. However, in diesel vehicles with DPF system, PM mass and particle number concentrations were greatly influenced by PM regeneration. Particle emissions in light-duty vehicles emitted about 90% at the ECE15 cycle in NEDC test mode, regardless of vehicle fuel type. Particle emissions at the early cold condition of engine were highly emitted in the test mode.     

一种汽油车用二甲醚混合燃料的开发研究

分析了二甲醚(DME)的特点，将DME、LPG及添加剂复合优化，增加了复合燃料的含氧量，提高了复合燃料的辛烷值。经台架、道路、排放性能测试，该燃料能够作为汽油机汽车燃料，使用方法与LPG相同，使用性能与RON90汽油相当，排放污染物明显减少。     

Effect of various LPG supply systems on exhaust particle emission in spark-ignited combustion engine

The particle size distribution and particle number (PN) concentration emitted by internal combustion engine are a subject of significant environmental concern because of their adverse health effects and environmental impact. This subject has recently attracted the attention of the Particle Measurement Programme (PMP). In 2007, the UN-ECE GRPE PMP proposed a new method to measure particle emissions in the diluted exhaust of automotive engines and a regulation limit (<6.0×10¹¹ #/km, number of particles). The specific PN regulation of spark-ignited combustion engine will be regulated starting on September 1, 2014 (EURO 6). In this study, three types of LPG supply systems (a mixer system and a multi-point injection system with gas-phase or liquid-phase LPG fuel) were used for a comparison of the particulate emission characteristics, including the nano-sized particle number density. Each of the three LPG vehicles with various LPG injection systems contained a multi-cylinder engine with same displacement volumes of 2,000 cm³ and a three-way catalytic converter. The test fuel that was used in this study for the spark-ignited combustion engine was n-butane basis LPG fuel, which is primarily used for taxi vehicles in Korea. The characteristics of nano-particle size distribution and number concentration of particle sizes ranging from 20 to 1,000 nm (aerodynamic diameter) that were emitted from the three LPG vehicles with various LPG supply systems were investigated by using a condensation particle counter (CPC), which is recommended by the PMP under both the NEDC and FTP-75 test modes on a chassis dynamometer. The experimental results indicate that the PN emission characteristics that were obtained by the CPC system using the PMP procedure are sufficiently reliable compared to other regulated emissions. Additionally, the sources of PN emissions in ascending order of magnitude are as follows: mixer type, gas-phase LPG injection (LPGi) and liquid-phase LPG injection (LPLi) passenger vehicles. The liquid-phase LPG injection system produced relatively large particle sizes and number concentrations compared to the gaseous system, regardless of the vehicle driving cycle. This phenomenon can be explained by unburned micro-fuel droplets that were generated due to a relatively short homogeneous fuel-air mixture duration in the engine intake manifold. Also the particle number emissions from the LPG vehicle were influenced by the vehicle driving cycle.     

Particulate Matter and Particle-Bound PAHs Emissions from Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) Engine with Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuel During Start

The effects of coolant’s temperature on emissions of particulate matters (PM) and particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from a gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine were studied during the start process using gasoline (M0) and gasoline mixed with methanol in 15 % volume (M15). The engine worked at a certain idle speed automatically under different coolant’s temperature conditions after successful start. The experimental data was recorded from 0 to 40 seconds during the start. Results indicated that, there are significant differences in PM and particle-bound PAHs emissions between cold and warm start conditions. Particulate size distribution was measured with the Engine Exhaust Particle Sizer (EEPS) 3090. Compared with M0 fuel, the PM emission of M15 fuel decreased significantly, especially nucleation-mode particulate emission. The mass emission of PM was measured using the Gravimetric method. A same variation trend in PM mass emissions can be inferred for both fuels, i.e. it decreases while the coolant’s temperature increases. Compared with M0 fuel, the PM mass with M15 fuel reduces by 80 % at 20 oC coolant’s temperature. Agilent 7000B GC-QQQ was used to provide both qualitative and quantitative analysis on PAHs. The application of M15 fuel reduces the concentrations of most PAH species compared with M0 fuel, except those with smaller aromatic rings. In addition, Benzo(a)pyrene equivalent toxicity (BEQ) is calculated to evaluate the toxicity of PAHs emissions. The toxicity decreases when the GDI engine starts with higher coolant’s temperature or with M15 fuel.     

Effect of Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Operating Parameters on Particle Number and Size Distribution at Low Speed Condition

Experiments and simulations were used to investigate the effect of a range of engine operating parameters and fuel characteristics on the particle size and particle number (PN) concentration at low speed and idle speed condition. The occurrence, size, and concentration of particles were tested against a range of parameters including start of injection (SOI), common rail pressure, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) ratio and load. The results showed that the homogeneity of the mixture had the greatest impact on particle size and number concentration. The performance of particle is different at different levels of load. The particle were of nucleation mode at idle condition, and the cold idle particles had a slightly larger diameter than those produced at hot idle. By using the diesel and under high load, at EGR ratios of less than 20 %, most particles were of nucleation mode. At EGR ratios exceeding 20 %, nucleation-mode particles were gradually replaced by accumulation-mode particles. At EGR ratios above 30 %, most particles were of the accumulation mode. Under the same load, gasoline compression ignition produced particles of smaller size and reduced particulate mass (PM). The use of gasoline extended ignition delay, as the high volatility and octane number of the fuel improved the homogeneity of the mixture. Finally, a linear relationship was found between PM and PN. The relative contribution of the different factors to the formation of nucleationor accumulation-mode particles was investigated.     

缸内直喷技术在小型汽油机上的应用研究

在1台单缸发动机上进行了汽油缸内直喷研究,设计了燃油供应系统、燃油电控喷射及台架测试系统。对部分台架试验结果进行研究分析,结果表明:改装的小型缸内直喷汽油机动力性能和排放性能均有明显改善;喷射时刻对排放有重要影响;在缸内直喷分层难以实现时,缸内直喷均质混合方式也是可行的研究开发方向。     

Effect of fuel choice on nanoparticle emission factors in LPG-gasoline bi-fuel vehicles

Nanoparticle and gas-phase emission factors are presented for a liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) passenger vehicle and are compared to gasoline operation. A bi-fuel LPG-gasoline vehicle certified for use on either fuel was used as the test vehicle so that a direct comparison of the emissions could be made based on fuel choice. These values were considered along with previous studies to determine the relative change in particulate emissions due to fuel choice over a wide range of vehicles and operating conditions. The vehicle examined in this study was tested on a chassis dynamometer for both steadystate and transient conditions. Transient test cycles included the US FTP72 driving cycle, Japanese driving cycle and modified Indian driving cycle while steady-state tests were done at vehicle speeds ranging from 10–90 km/hr in various transmission gears. Exhaust particle size distributions were measured in real-time using a differential mobility spectrometer (DMS50), and particle number and particle mass emission factors were calculated. For both fuels, the majority of the particles ranged from 5 to 160 nm in terms of particle diameter, with typically more than 85% of the particles in the nucleation mode (between 5–50 nm). In most cases, the vehicle produced a greater fraction of larger (accumulation mode) particles when fuelled on LPG. Using the data in the literature as well as the data in the current study, gasoline fuel produces 4.6 times more particles in terms of number and 2.1 times more particles in terms of mass.     

Investigation of engine restart stability after idle stop for a mild type HEV powertrain

Stringent regulations on exhaust emissions and fuel economy for vehicles have become major issues in the automotive industry. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are one of the crucial alternative plans to current conventional vehicles, but they have drawbacks, which include increases in total hydrocarbon (THC) emission from the engine and deterioration of the combustion stability with frequent stopping and restarting of the engine. Intake port fuel film is evaporated up during the deceleration state due to the fuel-cut. The λ (relative A/F ratio) at engine restart is lean because part of injected fuel is used to form the fuel film in the intake port. This study revealed the behavior of a fuel film in engine stop with fuel-cut and in engine restart with a simulation model. To investigate the fuel film characteristics, a simulation model was applied and validated with a single-cylinder engine. The simulation result shows that λ of at least 1.2 is required for a stable engine restart. The minimum injection quantity of the first cycle for stable combustion is suggested to be at least 240% of the steady-state idle condition.     

喷油定时对GDI汽油机燃用含水乙醇汽油的燃烧和颗粒排放的影响

在1台2.0L直列4缸GDI汽油机上,分别燃用汽油、含水乙醇汽油E10W、E20W,保持转速和平均指示压力不变,在不同喷油定时下分析汽油、E10W、E20W的燃烧特性和颗粒物排放特性.结果 表明:随着喷油定时的推迟,缸内压力、放热率和缸内平均温度三者峰值均呈现下降趋势,且放热率和缸内平均温度峰值位置推迟.燃用含水乙醇汽...     

辛烷值对发动机性能和燃烧特性影响的研究

通过发动机台架试验,对3种不同辛烷值汽油的燃烧特性、燃油经济性和排放性能进行了研究。试验研究结果表明,汽油辛烷值越低,其着火落后期和燃烧持续期越短,火焰传播速度和燃烧放热越快;燃用低辛烷值的汽油可以提高热效率,改善发动机的燃油消耗率;3种辛烷值汽油的THC,CO和NOx排放相差不大。     

一款1.5L缸内直喷汽油机的燃烧系统设计

基于进气道三维流场测试装置、定容弹喷雾试验台和光学单缸机测试系统组成的缸内直喷汽油机燃烧系统可视化开发平台,开发设计了满足设计要求的高性能进气道,并匹配了缸盖燃烧室和活塞,有助于缸内混合气的形成,提高燃烧速率;综合考虑排放与机油稀释量的基础上,优化设计了喷雾靶点。对所设计的燃烧系统进行了光学单缸机试验和热力学多缸机试验验证。结果表明,进气道和燃烧室组织引导的气流在缸内形成高滚流,对喷雾油束有强烈的弯卷作用,极大促进了均质混合气的形成,并减小喷雾碰壁的风险;喷雾靶点的合理设计有效避免喷雾油束与壁面的碰撞,减少了机油稀释率和起燃工况HC排放;所设计的燃烧系统搭载1.5TGDI发动机实现了80kW/L、最大扭矩250N·m、排放较低的性能指标。     

进气门关闭状态下喷油时刻对汽油机性能的影响

为了改善进气道喷射式发动机性能,采用台架试验和数值计算的方法对喷油时刻与进气道喷射式汽油机性能之间的关系进行了研究。研究结果表明：在进气门关闭状态下进行燃油喷射,发动机运行工况不同,喷油时刻对发动机性能的影响规律不同,小节气门开度时推迟喷油时刻会导致 HC 排放升高和发动机动力性下降,大节气门开度时喷油时刻的改变对发动机性能的影响可以忽略。通过数值计算分析发现该变化规律与附壁油膜挥发速率有直接关系,在小节气门开度条件下,附壁油膜无法完全挥发,会增加燃油以液态形式进入气缸的量,从而使发动机性能下降,而处于大节气门条件下,较高的机体温度使得附壁油膜挥发速率加快,降低液态燃油的量,从而改善发动机性能。因此,进气道喷射发动机可以在小节气门开度时采用两次燃油喷射方式提升发动机性能,而在大节气门开度下则无需考虑喷油时刻的影响。     

涡轮增压气道喷射汽油机工作过程性能优化

本文对某涡轮增压气道喷射汽油机进行了工作过程性能优化。首先根据实验结果,进行了同系列自然吸气汽油机工作数值模拟模型的标定;然后以该标定后模型为基础,建立了涡轮增压气道喷射汽油机工作过程数值模拟模型;再利用此模型进行了7种涡轮增压器的选型和匹配计算,确定了合适的涡轮增压器;最后分析了压缩比、进排气歧管结构、凸轮升程与配气相位等对该汽油机动力性、经济性的影响,并进行了相应的汽油机参数和结构优化。     

电控汽油机燃用高比例甲醇汽油的改造

为解决电控汽油机在燃用高比例甲醇汽油时受空燃比自适应控制限制不能正常运转的问题,设计了能够嵌入电控单元与喷油器之间的喷油脉宽信号处理器,能够按照经过优选设定的增益对电控单元输出的喷油脉宽信号进行扩展,将燃用高比例甲醇汽油时的空燃比维持在理论空燃比附近。与燃用汽油相比,发动机在燃用M85甲醇汽油时的动力性略有降低,排放指标基本相当,能量消耗率则略有上升。     

奥迪AB型矫车发动机集电控制系统的维修

奥迪A6型轿车的发动机为集中控制汽油直接喷射式V6发动机。其控制系统包括点火控制系统、燃油喷射控制系统、怠速控制系统及排放控制系统等。介绍了奥迪A6型轿车发动机的传感器和输出装置在车上的位置，及其控制系统的故障代码表等。     

喷嘴孔数及其布置对汽油直喷喷嘴闪沸喷雾-环境气体相互作用影响的研究

为了区分火花塞点火式缸内直喷(SIDI)发动机喷雾和环境气体两相流场,将优化后的高速双色PIV(Particle Image Velocimetry)技术应用于多孔直喷喷油器的喷雾和环境气体速度的测试.此双色PIV系统由一个特殊的示踪和滤波系统组成,可同时对燃油喷雾及其环境气体的速度场进行测量.本研究采用该双色PIV方法研究不同环境压力和燃油温度的条件下,喷嘴孔数及其布置情况对燃油喷雾和环境气体的相互作用的影响.在此研究中,对3个汽油直喷喷嘴做了详细的研究,包括1个6孔喷嘴,1个3孔喷嘴及1个2孔喷嘴.研究结果表明,随着燃油温度的提高或者环境气体压力的降低,喷雾雾化增强,燃油颗粒粒径减小,导致喷雾油束变宽,喷雾与环境气体接触面积变大,喷雾和环境气体的两相流场的作用变强.不同孔数和布置的喷油器在冷态及闪沸条件下油束间干扰作用的强度不同,导致喷雾传递给环境气体的动能不同.较强的油束间的干扰作用加强了燃油喷雾与环境气体之间的动量交换过程,进而增强了环境气体的动能.     

奥迪A6型轿车发动机集中控制系统的维修

奥迪A6型轿车的发动机为信可控制汽油直接喷射式V6发动机，其控制系统包括点火控制系统，燃油喷射控制系统，怠速控制系统及排放控制系统等，介绍了奥迪A6型轿车发动机的传感器和输出装置在车上的位置，及其控制系统的故障代码表等。