Role of the Railways in the Future of Air Transport

Abstract

The role of the railways in the air transport industry is usually limited to provision of access to airports. However, the development of high-speed rail networks and the congestion and environmental problems faced by the air transport industry suggest the railways could have a greater role in working with the airlines to provide an integrated transport service for medium-distance journeys (up to 800 km). Many air journeys involve two flights and a transfer at a hub airport. The alternative being investigated here would replace air journeys by a rail journey and a flight, and a transfer between them at the hub airport. Such integration could offer a positive alternative to aircraft on some routes and lead to railway journeys to airports becoming part of air transport services, and not only to provide access to them. Integration could therefore provide a better use of available air capacity rather than duplicating some high-speed rail routes and services.     

Rail freight efficiency and competitiveness in Australia

In 1994/95, the Australian rail freight task was approximately 100 billion tonne kilometres (btkm). This freight task included some 37 btkm for the haulage of iron ore in Western Australia, 28 btkm for coal haulage in Queensland and New South Wales and about 16 btkm for interstate rail freight. This paper mainly concerns how improvements can be made to the efficiency and competitiveness of interstate rail freight services through the upgrading of sections of mainline track that currently have severe speed‐weight restrictions. Recent improvements in rail freight efficiency are discussed, with emphasis on two indicators: average unit revenues (cents per net tonne km), and average energy efficiency (net tonne km per MJ). Rail freight efficiency is high for the Western Australia iron‐ore operations, Queensland coal operations and Adelaide‐Perth general freight operations. However, between Australia's three largest cities of Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, some 36% of the mainline track fails to meet basic fast freight train standards with a ruling grade of 1 in 66 and no curve radius less than 800 m. The contraints on efficient rail freight operations imposed by severe terrain, and how the effects of terrain may be reduced by improved track alignment, are discussed. Some economically warranted rail track investment measures are outlined, including those identified for a National Transport Planning Taskforce. These measures have the potential to reduce liquid fuel use by over 250 million litres a year. Factors affecting competitive neutrality between road and rail freight that are outside of the present scope of Australia's National Competition Policy are broadly considered. These factors include the extensive upgrading of the National Highway System with full Federal funding, and low levels of road cost recovery from heavy trucks operating over long distances.     

Very-high-speed tests on the french railway track

The campaigns conducted by SNCF at very high speeds allowed improvement in the knowledge of the actual TGV vehicle/track system and, in particular of the dynamical behavior of numerous components, which were obtained under very hard working conditions, for instance:

• — mechanical components (axle boxes, transmissions, etc.)
• — suspensions, damper particularly,
• — bogies,
• — pantograph,
• — electrical traction equipments (transformer of power, electric motors, power electronics, cooling systems),
• — signalling equipment.

Made with a TGV Atlantic series train set equipped with series components, it allowed demonstration to our passengers the very large safety margin of the whole system, track and vehicle as well, for revenue speeds of 300 km/h. At last, the tests allowed dramatically to raise the limit of the wheel and rail system, up to the mythic figure of 500 km/h, thus demonstrating that railways will reamin the first guided transport system during the 21st century.     

Financial relations between European railways for their international services

The operations of European railway companies are generally confined to the territory of one country. Each company incurs the cost of operations on its network. For international trains there are systems of physical compensation for vehicles and staff operating outside their home network. Revenues either go direct to each company involved, or, in the case of through international rates, are apportioned according to distance. This situation implies that for any decision on price and services agreement of all operators involved is necessary. Also, the apportionment of costs between operators is not in line with real cost structure. With further integration in the European community, and freer movement between Eastern and Western Europe, international transport will become more important, and railways will be at a disadvantage compared with other modes that can operate international services throughout. An organisation is proposed and illustrated with some examples, wherein separate commercial units are formed responsible for running and marketing an international rail service. Track, vehicles, and staff of national railway companiew may be used as now, but at a price to be agreed, and without the need for physical compensation.     

High-Speed Rail Operations on an Existing Network: An Assessment Model for China

High-speed rail operations have the potential to reduce the long-term decline in rail passenger travel demand for the medium to long distance inter-urban markets. Such decline has been evident through most of the industrialized countries where air and road transport tend to be the dominant modes. In China, the operations of long distance high-speed rail on fully dedicated track is not very easy to implement, due to the high proportion of passengers who travel between high-speed and conventional railways. An alternative approach would be to allow for mixed operations with trains of various speeds on the same track. This article puts forward a simulation model designed to allow an evaluation of the most efficient distance for high-speed rail operations under mixed train speed scenarios. The model takes into account the main operating parameters such as passenger volumes, train speeds, capital and maintenance costs, train operating costs and energy consumption. The distance of high-speed train running on conventional rail that will yield the most economic benefit can be estimated using the model. The article includes the results of using the model for a specific example. It is concluded that large-scale high-speed trains have the potential to be successfully operated on conventional rail networks.     

Is rail cleaner and greener than bus?

The popular consensus is that urban passenger rail is more environmentally friendly than urban passenger bus. This position is largely associated with the key energy source for each mode, respectively electricity and diesel, where electric vehicle use will typically result in local air quality improvements away from the electricity generation source. Surveys of community perceptions reflect this sentiment; however the relationship between the source of energy and its resultant emissions is not something that citizens fully understand. There is a general lack of awareness of the resource base of much of electricity generation in some countries. Where generation sources are suitably renewable or low-carbon, electricity use will offer greenhouse gas abatement potential. However, in countries which still rely heavily on coal-fired power stations, such as Australia, abatement is not as assured and estimating emission outcomes can require careful assessment. Supporters of alternatives to diesel use can focus on the future supply of fossil-fuels, an argument which has merit; however such arguments are often confounded with environmental qualities related to local air pollution and enhanced greenhouse gas emissions. This paper takes a close look at the greenhouse emissions that are associated with urban rail and bus in Australia. Estimated intensities, when presented in the context of effective service delivery (primarily in terms of emissions per passenger kilometre), raise questions about the distortions that are present in the widespread promotion in Australia (at least) of rail as a more environmentally friendly and hence a sustainable mode of urban passenger transport than bus.     

Are railways really that bad? An evaluation of rail systems performance in Europe with a focus on passenger rail

With a large number of railway development projects in Europe and worldwide, which once completed will be serving rail passengers of the future, this paper aims to take a step back and evaluate current railway systems performance. The objectives are to compare statistical data on various passenger-related parameters of the railway system in a number of selected European countries and draw conclusions on the level of their performance when compared to the European average.Analyses of publically available statistical data, extracted from the Eurostat service at a European level will allow for a comparison of various indicators which influence the performance of the railway systems from an infrastructure and operational perspectives. The analyses will also allow identifying key performance indicators for the accurate assessment of the rail systems.The paper will highlight case studies for various parameters which are important to stakeholders of the railways, including infrastructure managers, rail operators, policy makers and the end users. This knowledge will be to the benefit of today’s railway industry as well as the rail systems of the future, as it will show trends drew upon existing data which might continue in the future.     

The European freight railway system as a hub-and-spoke network

This paper addresses a hub-and-spoke network problem for railroad freight, where a central planner is to find transport routes, frequency of service, length of trains to be used, and transportation volume. Hub-and-spoke networks, often found in air freight, have not been favoured by railways in the past. Such a structure could be profitable, however, if there exist concentrated freight flows on some service links. We formulate a linear integer programming model whose objective function includes not only the typical operational cost, but also cost due to the transit time spent by freight in the network. We then develop heuristic algorithms to solve large scale instances occurring in rail freight systems in France plus Italy; Germany; and a 10-country European network. By assuming that every node is equipped with consolidation capability, we let the final solution naturally reveal potential hub locations, the impact of several of which is studied by sensitivity analysis.     

Restructuring land transport in New Zealand

Restructuring of governmental activities in New Zealand calls for public enterprises to operate in competitive environments. This has created problems for highways and urban passenger transport. Whereas the national airline has been privatized and railways corporatized, legislation for land transport has created a Crown agency that is expected to operate commercially within funding and policy constraints. The problems are assessed as Transit New Zealand attempts to allocate state funds between competing projects using commercial criteria. New roles have been legislated for regional agencies and local governments: they are expected to either privatize service delivery or create public corporations to maintain highways and operate passenger transport. Principles underlying restructuring are examined, and suggestions are made on how agencies might take advantage of opportunities.     

Suburban service in North America today—Which way will we go?

The current situation of suburban rail services is reviewed. Differences between seemingly similar services—urban transit, commuter service, suburban rail service and regional rail -are discussed. The suburban rail commuter is described as the true intermodal traveler. Differences of the political backgrounds of the inner-city compared to the suburbs complicate implementation of programs to improve service and suggest deep problems over the long term. Because the transition of suburban rail service from the private to public sector has been so recent, it is difficult for many to recognize that the profit of the service is in the lower total transportation costs for the community as compared to a cash dividend. Existing railroad lines in many cities have the potential of being a cost-effective solution to traffic problems, although the specific solutions vary widely, ranging from the operation of new commuter trains over the lines of a heavy duty railroad (Toronto) to a completely new light rail system (San Diego).     

From broken windows to a renovated research agenda: A review of the literature on vandalism and graffiti in the rail industry

The execution of vandalism and graffiti on rail property has a significant impact on rail authorities, the patronisation of rail services, expenditure, and the timely operation of services. There are also important social costs which stem from passengers feeling unsafe, not to mention the environmental costs of removing graffiti and repairing vandalism. In this review paper, we focus on the social, non-technical determinants of and deterrents to vandalism and graffiti in the rail industry. First, we consider the definitions of graffiti and vandalism that are often conflated. After providing some clarification on terminology, and proposing a media-centred approach to vandalism and graffiti, we consider various theorisations of the psychosocial determinants of vandalism and graffiti behaviour. We then turn to an empirical discussion of different technical and social, non-technical prevention programmes that have been trialled. With a focus on identifying what works and under what circumstances, we refer to international case studies of successful vandalism reduction initiatives from Europe, the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Australia. Based on a review of literature and practice, we outline a future research agenda to address vandalism and graffiti. We recommend lines of further research covering: theory, empirical data collection and practical initiatives. Specifically, we note the need for a trans-theoretical model of vandalism and graffiti, further ethnographic research and improved evaluation and benchmarking strategies. This is the first review dedicated to the topic of vandalism and graffiti in the rail industry and the first review of non-technical, social deterrents to vandalism and graffiti broadly.     

Intercity rail services: A nested logit stated choice analysis of pricing options

There is a renewed interest in intercity and long-distance rail services in many countries, with both new high-speed rail services and improvements to conventional rail under review. The current study reports on an investigation using a stated choice experiment, of the demand for sleeper services between Sydney, Northern New South Wales (NSW) and Brisbane in Australia, a 12 to 14 hour trip, just after a decision by the NSW government to temporarily suspend sleeper services and introduce seating service only, pending an inquiry into the demand for such loss-making services under alternative price and service levels. A matrix of direct fare elasticities within the rail mode and between rail and competing modes are obtained for concession and non-concession travellers from a nested logit model. The empirical evidence extends our knowledge of the sensitivity of the long distance passenger market to a range of rails fares, distinguishing between classes of fares and levels of service.     

What determines rail transit passenger volume? Implications for transit oriented development planning

Transit oriented development (TOD) has been an important topic for urban transportation planning research and practice. This paper is aimed at empirically examining the effect of rail transit station-based TOD on daily station passenger volume. Using integrated circuit (IC) card data on metro passenger volumes and cellular signaling data on the spatial distribution of human activities in Shanghai, the research identifies variations in ridership among rail transit stations. Then, regression analysis is performed using passenger volume in each station as the dependent variable. Explanatory variables include station area employment and population, residents’ commuting distances, metro network accessibility, status as interchange station, and coupling with commercial activity centers. The main findings are: (1) Passenger volume is positively associated with employment density and residents’ commuting distance around station; (2) stations with earlier opening dates and serving as transfer nodes tend to have positive association with passenger volumes; (3) metro stations better integrated with nearby commercial development tend to have larger passenger volumes. Several implications are drawn for TOD planning: (1) TOD planning should be integrated with rail transit network planning; (2) location of metro stations should be coupled with commercial development; (3) high employment densities should be especially encouraged as a key TOD feature; and (4) interchange stations should be more strategically positioned in the planning for rail transit network.     

Cost-benefit analysis,government policy and the British railway network

In 1963 the Beeching Report on Britain's railways proposed the closure of a substantial part of the railway network (British Railways Board, 1963). Although many services were withdrawn, disquiet at the Report's failure to analyse the social benefits of rail passenger services eventually led to the application of the technique of cost-benefit analysis to the problem of unremunerative rail services. However, although such studies revealed that the retention of many rural rail services could not be justified on social grounds, these services were not withdrawn. This paper outlines briefly the history of attempts to deal with the question of the optimal size of the rail passenger network. Secondly, it considers the social cost-benefit case for reducing the present size of the network in Britain and the quantifiable benefits from such a reduction. The problem of joint costs is discussed. Finally, it attempts to explain the failure of successive Governments to apply the results of cost-benefit studies in practice, and suggests how the decision-making process might be altered to facilitate a more rational approach towards public transport problems in Britain.     

Passenger rail in North America in the light of developments in Western Europe and Japan

Because of different geo‐demographic and economic conditions, the impact of the new passenger modes (road and air) on rail travel was much larger in North America than in Europe. In 1960s and 1970s, as the railway share of intercity traffic in North America shrunk to a negligible one or two percent, the passenger trains were abandoned by private railway companies and taken over by state organizations, which have continued to operate traditional trains and generate mounting losses. On the technology side, no attempts have been made to improve competitiveness of trains vis‐a‐vis automobiles and airplanes.

In Europe and Japan, the railways responded to the challenge by (i) upgrading the performance (speed) and comfort of traditional trains operating on existing tracks and (ii) developing trains which could, on short and intermediate range distances, compete successfully, in terms of speed and economy, with the road and air modes. The Japanese (Shinkansen trains) and French (TGV trains) experience clearly shows that trains operating on dedicated lines at average speeds of 150 to 200 km/hr provide a superior transportation service and economy on high‐traffic intercity routes of up to about 500 km length. In this paper the factors responsible for the present status of passenger rail in North America are analysed, the current policies in the U.S. and Canada are evaluated in the light of experience to date and developments abroad, and suggestions for a long‐term passenger rail policy are made. This includes examination of (i) the viability of continued subsidization of traditional train services, (ii) the viability of operation of faster trains on existing tracks, (iii) the scope for introduction of modern, fast trains on dedicated lines in high‐density, intercity corridors, (iv) the application of fast trains as access to major airports and integration of airports with fast intercity lines, and (v) the impact of energy (oil) consumption in transportation.

     

The development of China's railway building

Abstract

At the birth of New China in 1949, 11 000 km of railway track were in use throughout the country. This paper describes the measures taken by the State to develop railways in the interests of the national economy. By the end of 1982 more than 52 000 km were open to traffic and much more is being built in the face of great engineering difficulties. Many lines are being electrified.

The paper also describes other measures essential for the modernization of rail transport: New China's creation of locomotive and vehicle plants, the management organization under the Ministry of Railways and the development of scientific research and educational work.

The rail density and transport capacity is still far from sufficient. Railways face a formidable task in helping China achieve the goal fixed in 1982 of quadrupling the output value of industry and agriculture by the year 2000.     

电气化铁路对埋地钢质燃气管道的交流干扰研究

文中主要研究了电气化铁路对埋地钢质燃气管道交流干扰的影响.在京沪高铁试运行期间选取了9条管线进行普测,证实了整个京沪高铁沿线的管线确实受到了交流干扰.通过测试交流电气化铁路在试运行、正式开通后交流干扰的变化情况,表明高铁发车密度越大、载重量越重,所产生的交流干扰明显加大.同时,通过对施加排流措施前、施加排流措施后的对比测试,发现通过增加排流措施,可以使管道受到的干扰大幅度降低,证明了排流工程的有效性.     

The impact of urban rail transit on commercial property value: New evidence from Wuhan,China

The interaction between rail transit and the urban property market is a vital foundation for planning transit-based policy such as Value Capture and Transit Oriented Development (TOD). Yet only few studies have reported the impact of transit access on commercial property value. This paper presents empirical evidence from Wuhan, China, to enrich the knowledge in the subject area. Spatial autoregressive models were employed to estimate the commercial value capture, based on 676 observations along Wuhan’s metro rail line through the main business districts. Value appreciation was discovered within the 400 m radius of road network distance from Metro stations. The transit access premiums present as two tiers: 16.7% for the 0–100 m core area and approximately 8.0% within the 100–400 m radius. The result demonstrates the potential benefit of adopting value capture and optimising TOD planning to support sustainable urban rail transit investment. Amid rapid urbanisation in China, the evidence reported here could help better inform cities, across the developing world and beyond, of the benefits of adopting rail transit-based policy.     

A survey of the Swiss public transport system and policy

This paper surveys Swiss public transport structure and policy. The regulatory regime is explained with the division between the two operators working under federal monopoly — the State railways (SBB) and the postbuses (PTT) — and the rest of the system. The rather complicated Swiss subsidy arrangements are described. The federal government's emphasis on introducing cheap public transport fares on environmental grounds through the federal transport measures (BTM) and the use of cheap fares in urban areas are discussed. The paper notes the Swiss people's rejection by a referendum of a federal commission's proposal for an integrated transport policy, though some of the solutions were introduced in their own right: the division of SBB into two parts, and the creation of the concept Rail 2000, later developed into Rail + Bus 2000. Finally, the paper reviews problems of the Swiss policy, including the future of cheap fares, making some comparisons with developments in Scandinavia.     

A pre-appraisal model for rail transit in developing cities

A major research study funded by the UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA) and designed to establish the necessary considerations for viability of mass rapid transit railways in developing cities was recently completed. The analytical core of the study was a pre-appraisal model, which combines an innovative strategic land use/transport model utilizing relationships from developing cities and an economic evaluation model. This model — MRTAP — has now been developed into a user-friendly package which the ODA intend should be made widely available in the developing world. The paper describes the basis of this model.