Modal split in offshore supply network under the objective of emissions minimization

We study modal split under the objective of emissions minimization in the transportation of cargo from centralized vendors in the oil and gas industry to decentralized supply bases on the Norwegian coast. The supply network includes direct road transport and a sea route along the coast. To gain insight into modal split decisions between road and sea transport from the shipper’s perspective multi-period mixed integer optimization models are formulated. Particularly the models give possibilities to examine how weekly demand patterns at supply bases, cargo commitments to sea transport, storage possibilities at supply bases, and shipper’s responsibility for a certain share of vessel capacity may effect the emissions and the modal split. Experiments on real data from an oil and gas company operating offshore show that the size of the share of vessel capacity and the possibility for storage at supply bases are the major determinants for a larger shift to environmentally friendly sea transport. The models can be used as means for making decisions regarding how a shipper can commit to sea transport to achieve less emissions.     

Powertrain technologies and their impact on greenhouse gas emissions in key car markets

The role alternative car technologies may play in effectively tackling the problem of climate change is still highly uncertain. This paper aims at investigating possible impacts of car powertrain technologies on future energy demand and its corresponding greenhouse gas emissions until 2030. A system dynamics model covering nine car technologies in China, France, Germany, India, Japan and the United States was applied, with a focus on electric cars. Four main scenarios are constructed and sensitivity analysis undertaken. Greenhouse gas emissions from cars in the six countries are simulated to reach up to 2.6 gigatonnes in 2030 (a 13–32% increase between 2020 and 2030, depending on the scenario). The main conclusion from model-based policy analysis is that electric cars may have a positive contribution to emissions mitigation in the passenger road transport system. However, greenhouse gas emissions from cars arising from the combined effect of car manufacturing and scrappage and electricity generation processes are expected to grow more dramatically. As a result, actions that support both low-emission (re-)manufacturing and clean electricity generation are needed. These results complement accurate but static life cycle assessments and open the discussion for dynamic model assumptions.     

A ‘Less-flexibility-first’ Heuristic for the Placement of Inland Vessels in a Lock

Abstract

Inland vessels move goods along waterways (canals and rivers) and they visit ports. Because of their tidal nature, vessels make use of locks to enter ports or waterways. From a port management point of view, fast access to and from the port and high utilization of locks are important objectives. Where the former relates to low inbound and outbound waiting times, the latter relates to the placement of as many vessels as possible in the lock before its operation. This article includes a case study that relates to the operation of the Van Cauwelaert lock in the port of Antwerp, Belgium. Lock operation policy is as follows: vessels wait in front of the lock for a port administrator to assign places in the lock based on knowledge of the vessels’ dimensions. As such, there is no FIFO-discipline, but a ‘group-FIFO’-discipline, i.e. if n vessels are allowed into the lock, they are the first n vessels in the arrival queue. A heuristic algorithm is formulated for the placement of vessels in the lock. This algorithm supports the decision where to place the vessel in the lock, aiming to place as many vessels as possible from the arrival queue. At the same time, it supports the decision to start a locking operation or not, based on information about vessels that are announced but which have not yet arrived at the lock's entrance. The heuristic is called a ‘less-flexibility-first’-heuristic as it looks for pseudo-placements, showing which flexibility is left for the remaining vessels after placing a vessel. This article describes the implementation of the heuristic and provides numerical examples. A comparison is made between the heuristic results and daily practice, based on real-life vessel movements through the Van Cauwelaert lock in 2002.     

Liner shipping network design with emission control areas: A genetic algorithm-based approach

To curb emissions, containerized shipping lines face the traditional trade-off between cost and emissions (CO₂ and SO_x) reduction. This paper considers this element in the context of liner service design and proposes a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model based on a multi-commodity pickup and delivery arc-flow formulation. The objective is to maximize the profit by selecting the ports to be visited, the sequence of port visit, the cargo flows between ports, as well as the number/operating speeds of vessels on each arc of the selected route. The problem also considers that Emission Control Areas (ECAs) exist in the liner network and accounts for the vessel carrying capacity. In addition to using the MILP solver of CPLEX, we develop in the paper a specific genetic algorithm (GA) based heuristic and show that it gives the possibility to reach an optimal solution when solving large size instances.     

What cognitive mechanisms predict travel mode choice? A systematic review with meta-analysis

Reduced private car use can limit greenhouse gas emissions and improve public health. It is unclear, however, how promotion of alternative transport choices can be optimised. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to identify potentially modifiable cognitive mechanisms that have been related to car use and use of alternative transport modes. A qualitative synthesis of measures of potentially modifiable mechanisms based on 43 studies yielded 26 conceptually distinct mechanism categories. Meta-analyses of associations between these mechanisms and car use/non-use generated 205 effects sizes (Pearson’s r) from 35 studies. The strongest correlates of car use were intentions, perceived behavioural control, attitudes and habit. The strongest correlates of alternative transportation choices were intentions, perceived behavioural control and attitudes. Implications for researchers and policy implementation are discussed.     

Meeting an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from transportation by 2050: A case study in California

This paper investigates how California may reduce transportation greenhouse gas emissions 80% below 1990 levels by 2050 (i.e., 80in50). A Kaya framework that decomposes greenhouse gas emissions into the product of population, transport intensity, energy intensity, and carbon intensity is used to analyze emissions and mitigation options. Each transportation subsector, including light-duty, heavy-duty, aviation, rail, marine, agriculture, and off-road vehicles, is analyzed to identify specific mitigation options and understand its potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Scenario analysis shows that, while California’s 2050 target is ambitious, it can be achieved in transport if a concerted effort is made to change travel behavior and the vehicles and fuels that provide mobility. While no individual ‘‘Silver Bullet” strategy exists that can achieve the goals, a portfolio approach that combines strategies could yield success. The 80in50 scenarios show the impacts of advanced vehicle and fuels technologies as well as the role of travel demand reduction, which can significantly reduce energy and resource requirements and the level of technology development needed to meet the target.     

The role of ‘indirect’ greenhouse gas emissions in tourism: Assessing the hidden carbon impacts from a holiday package tour

Tourism is a noticeable contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Existing estimates of tourism’s carbon footprint are however incomplete as they fail to holistically assess the additional, ‘indirect’ carbon requirements. These arise from the non-use phases of a tourism product or service life cycle and can be further magnified by supply chain industries. Under-development of methods for carbon impact assessment in tourism is the primary reason for the omission of ‘indirect’ GHG emissions. This study develops a new approach for comprehensive appraisal of GHG emissions which incorporates and advances the methodological advantages of existing assessment techniques. It tests the applicability of this approach in tourism by conducting a holistic analysis of a standard holiday package to Portugal, based on the British tourism market. The new approach demonstrates the significance of the ‘indirect’ GHG emissions in the total carbon footprint from the holiday package, thus emphasising the necessity for more comprehensive future assessments.     

Carbon dioxide emissions from port container distribution: Spatial characteristics and driving factors

Port carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in China have become an ever-increasing public concern due to their significant impacts on human health and the environment. However, existing studies focus mainly on CO₂ emissions from vessels calling at the ports and cargo handling within the ports, paying little attention to the inland distribution networks. To fill this gap, this paper proposes an easily implemented method for calculating CO₂ emissions from port container distribution (PCD) and investigates their spatial characteristics and driving factors. By analyzing 30 container ports in China, the main findings are as follows. First, road transportation is the major contributor of CO₂ emissions from PCD due to the lack of rail and inland water transportation. Second, PCD carbon emissions exhibit significant local spatial clustering. That is, ports with similar geographical locations tend to present a similar pattern of PCD carbon emissions. Third, as suggested by the spatial Durbin model, PCD carbon emissions are negatively determined by local gross domestic product, number of port berths, but are positively determined by local tertiary industry value and highway freight volume, and waterway freight volume in both local and neighboring ports. These results provide empirical insights into cross-port collaboration in reducing PCD carbon emissions.     

How do economies of density in container handling operations affect ships’ time and emissions in port? Evidence from Norwegian container terminals

Efficient port services are prerequisites for competitive and sustainable maritime transports. This paper makes advances in studying the determinants of the time that ships spend in port and the associated emissions to air. We estimate a production model for cargo handling based on a unique dataset containing each port of call at the largest container terminals in Norway in 2014. In turn, we use auxiliary engine emission factors to estimate particulate matter and nitrogen oxide emissions from ships at berth, to determine how the corresponding damage costs of air pollution vary with container throughput, location, and terminal investments. We find that Norwegian container terminals operate under increasing returns to density. Small ships that unload few containers are far from reaping economies of density, leading to high marginal time requirements for container handling and consequently high marginal external costs. From a Pigouvian taxation perspective, port charges should therefore be regressive in the number of containers handled. Moreover, we find that the external costs of maritime transports are severely understated when port operations are ignored. Our model allows determining the marginal productivities of port facilities. Thereby, it is instrumental in designing port charges that are diversified according to the quantity of containers handled and the service quality (i.e., the speed of handling operations). Regarding contextual factors, we find that establishing high-frequent liner services improves the ship working rate, while simultaneous calls at a terminal impede productivity. The type of container (loading/unloading; empty/laden) also appears to influence the duration of ship working.     

Accelerating the transformation to a low carbon passenger transport system: The role of car purchase taxes,feebates, road taxes and scrappage incentives in the UK

The transition to a low carbon transport world requires a host of demand and supply policies to be developed and deployed. Pricing and taxation of vehicle ownership plays a major role, as it affects purchasing behavior, overall ownership and use of vehicles. There is a lack in robust assessments of the life cycle energy and environmental effects of a number of key car pricing and taxation instruments, including graded purchase taxes, vehicle excise duties and vehicle scrappage incentives. This paper aims to fill this gap by exploring which type of vehicle taxation accelerates fuel, technology and purchasing behavioral transitions the fastest with (i) most tailpipe and life cycle greenhouse gas emissions savings, (ii) potential revenue neutrality for the Treasury and (iii) no adverse effects on car ownership and use.The UK Transport Carbon Model was developed further and used to assess long term scenarios of low carbon fiscal policies and their effects on transport demand, vehicle stock evolution, life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in the UK. The modeling results suggest that policy choice, design and timing can play crucial roles in meeting multiple policy goals. Both CO₂ grading and tightening of CO₂ limits over time are crucial in achieving the transition to low carbon mobility. Of the policy scenarios investigated here the more ambitious and complex car purchase tax and feebate policies are most effective in accelerating low carbon technology uptake, reducing life cycle greenhouse gas emissions and, if designed carefully, can avoid overburdening consumers with ever more taxation whilst ensuring revenue neutrality. Highly graduated road taxes (or VED) can also be successful in reducing emissions; but while they can provide handy revenue streams to governments that could be recycled in accompanying low carbon measures they are likely to face opposition by the driving population and car lobby groups. Scrappage schemes are found to save little carbon and may even increase emissions on a life cycle basis.The main policy implication of this work is that in order to reduce both direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions from transport governments should focus on designing incentive schemes with strong up-front price signals that reward ‘low carbon’ and penalize ‘high carbon’. Policy instruments should also be subject to early scrutiny of the longer term impacts on government revenue and pay attention to the need for flanking policies to boost these revenues and maintain the marginal cost of driving.     

Reducing speed and fuel transfer of the Green Flag Incentive Program in Kaohsiung Port Taiwan

This research applied the Green Flag Program to assess the benefits of reducing speed and fuel transfer for large merchant vessels (bulk and container) entering Kaohsiung Port. This study adopts an activity-based model to calculate fuel consumption and emissions, as well as setting up two scenarios, (1) decrease vessel speed to 12 knots 20 nm away from port; and (2) decrease vessel speed to 12 knots and transfer fuel 20 nm away from port, which based on the Green Flag Program in Long Beach, in the U.S. The findings are (1) In scenario one, the container and bulk vessels saw reductions in CO₂ emissions of about 41% and 14%, respectively. In scenario two, container and bulk vessels had reductions of about 48% and 43% in SO₂ emissions, respectively. (2) Large vessels are more environmentally friendly than small vessels. (3) Using the CATCH model to assess the effectiveness of the two scenarios, it was found that container vessels benefited from both reducing speed and fuel transfer, while bulk carriers only did so from the former.     

Health externalities of ship air pollution at port – Piraeus port case study

This paper is employing the well-known methodology of impact pathway approach to assess the external costs in human health from ship air pollution at port areas. The passenger port of Piraeus, Greece is the scenery of the study. Piraeus port is in the vicinity of the greater Athens metropolitan area where almost half of the country’s population lives. Hence, this port is the central hub of the Greek coastal passenger ship system which connects the islands of the Aegean Sea with land and is characterized by heavy ship traffic. The case study presented in this paper assesses the annual external cost in human health from air emissions produced by all passenger ships and cruise ships calling the port of Piraeus. Health cost from ships at port has been estimated at both local (Athens metropolitan area) and regional level (entire territory of Greece). Results show that higher costs occur at the local level. The dominant pollutants creating this cost are particulate matter (PM_2.5, and PM₁₀). Overall, the results indicate that the health impact of Piraeus’s passenger port emissions is not negligible; however the cost of PM₁₀ is considerably lower than the corresponded cost deriving from the land based industries of the Athens regional area for which comparison has been available.     

Influences of car type class and carbon dioxide emission levels on purchases of new cars: A retrospective analysis of car purchases in Norway

The impact of socio-demographic and psychological factors on purchases of new cars is examined. Data were gathered in an online retrospective survey using a sample of 198 Norwegian households who purchased a new car in December 2010. A latent class analysis was performed to identify car type classes followed by a path analysis to investigate the determinants of the purchased car type class and the influence on the purchased car’s level of carbon dioxide emissions. The results revealed that car type class is the strongest determinant of the car’s level of CO₂ emissions. Socio-demographic factors have little impact on choice of car type class when psychological factors are controlled for. Intention to purchase an environmentally friendly car has a direct effect on the car’s CO₂ emissions.     

Port Administrative Structure Change Worldwide: Its Implication for Restructuring Port Authorities in Taiwan

Abstract

This paper aims to review the evolution of the port authority’s role and recent changes in port administrative structure worldwide, and to discuss its implication for restructuring Taiwanese port authorities. It is found that the port authority is expected to play a proactive role in strategically managing overall port operations, and aggressively market its ports to port customers with a view to increasing cargo throughput and economic growth in its region. The change in the port authority’s role has driven a change in port administrative management structure worldwide. The proposed restructuring of port authorities in Taiwan is accompanied by some potential pitfalls. These include that the legislative framework of the programme is driven by political rather than professional concerns, and the port authority’s dual role as a regulator and as an operator at ports is against the principles of ‘separation of port administration (regulatory functions) and business management’ recently adopted worldwide. These pitfalls can impede the achievement of the objectives, including directing port authorities towards becoming independent commercially oriented entities. Therefore, this paper recommends that port corporatization approach will be a good alternative for restructuring Taiwanese port authorities.     

Preferences for autonomous and alternative fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks in Germany

Germany is by far the largest contributor of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union but adopted its own climate action plan to achieve greenhouse gas neutrality by 2050. The country’s third-largest emitter of greenhouse gas emissions is the transportation sector. As of January 2019, 99.7% of heavy-duty trucks registered in Germany run on diesel while the share of alternative fuel-powered passenger cars increases steadily. Apart from rising emissions, the industry faces a growing shortage of qualified truck drivers. A solution to increasing emissions and the shortage of drivers are autonomous and alternative fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks. We employed a choice-based conjoint analysis with employees from freight companies in Germany to find out how they assess the main attributes of innovative trucks. Our results reveal that the maximum driving range is the most important attribute followed by the refueling/recharging time. Tank-to-wheel emissions, on the other hand, was ranked as the least relevant attribute. Moreover, we present customers’ preference shares for future heavy-duty trucks until 2035. According to our results, freight companies are generally open to switching from conventional to low emission and (conditionally-) automated heavy-duty trucks, however, a close collaboration between truck manufacturers, customers, infrastructure companies, and policymakers is essential to spur the penetration of autonomous and alternative fuel-powered heavy-duty trucks.     

Multioutput analysis of cargo handling firms: An application to a Spanish port

Cargo handling in ports is a multioutput activity, as freight can arrive in many forms such as containers, bulk, rolling stock, or non-containerised general cargo. In this paper, the operation of cargo handling firms in a Spanish port is analysed through the estimation of a multioutput cost model that uses monthly data on three representative firms located at the Las Palmas port. This permits the calculation of product specific marginal costs, economies of scale (general and by firm) and economies of scope, which help identifying optimal pricing policies and the potential cost advantages of increasing production.     

Greenhouse gas emissions from ships in ports – Case studies in four continents

Emissions of GHG from the transport sector and how to reduce them are major challenges for policy makers. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ships while in port based on annual data from Port of Gothenburg, Port of Long Beach, Port of Osaka and Sydney Ports. Port call statistics including IMO number, ship name, berth number and time spent at berth for each ship call, were provided by each participating port. The IMO numbers were used to match each port call to ship specifications from the IHS database Sea-web. All data were analysed with a model developed by the IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute for the purpose of quantifying GHG emissions (as CO₂-equivalent) from ships in the port area. Emissions from five operational modes are summed in order to account for ship operations in the different traffic areas. The model estimates total GHG emissions of 150,000, 240,000, 97,000, and 95,000 tonnes CO₂ equivalents per year for Gothenburg, Long Beach, Osaka, and Sydney, respectively. Four important emission-reduction measures are discussed: reduced speed in fairway channels, on-shore power supply, reduced turnaround time at berth and alternative fuels. It is argued that the potential to reduce emissions in a port area depends on how often a ship revisits a port: there it in general is easier to implement measures for high-frequent liners. Ships that call 10 times or less contribute significantly to emissions in all ports.     

Assessing the impact of bus technology on greenhouse gas emissions along a major corridor: A lifecycle analysis

This paper evaluates the impact of alternative bus transit technologies including compressed natural gas, biodiesel, and diesel-electric hybrid on greenhouse gas emissions along a busy transit corridor using a lifecycle analysis approach. In addition, we compare the operational emissions of buses running on these technologies using an instantaneous speed and an average speed model. Our results indicate that operational emissions make-up the largest portion of lifecycle emissions. When comparing instantaneous and average speed emissions we find that both methods produce consistent results for diesel, however, the average speed method underestimates biodiesel emissions by 21% and overestimates compressed natural gas emissions by 16%. Bus technologies ranked in increasing order of lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions are: hybrid, compressed natural gas, biodiesel, and conventional diesel.     

Assessment of carbon emission costs for air cargo transportation

This study presents a set of models that calculate carbon emissions in individual phases of flight during air cargo transportation, investigates resultant carbon footprints by aircraft type and flight route, and estimates increases in transportation costs for airlines due to carbon taxes imposed by the EU ETS. The estimated results provide useful references for airlines in aircraft assignment on different routes and in aircraft selection for new purchases. Validation of the model is conducted by simulating the potential impact of the implementation of the EU ETS on costs of air cargo transportation for six routes and six types of aircraft. Results show that the impact may be subject to various factors including unit carbon emissions per aircraft, aviation emission allowances per airline, and carbon trading prices; and that increases in costs of air cargo transportation range from 0% to 5.27% per aircraft per route. Therefore, the implementation of the EU ETS may encourage airlines to cut down their operating costs by reducing their carbon emissions, thereby ameliorating greenhouse gas pollution caused by air cargo transportation.     

Electric vehicles for greenhouse gas reduction in China: A cost-effectiveness analysis

There have been ongoing debates over whether battery electric vehicles contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in China’s context, and if yes, whether the greenhouse gas emissions reduction compensates the cost increment. This study informs such debate by examining the life-cycle cost and greenhouse gas emissions of conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles, and comparing their cost-effectiveness for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The results indicate that under a wide range of vehicle and driving configurations (range capacity, vehicle use intensity, etc.), battery electric vehicles contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared with conventional vehicles, although their current cost-effectiveness is not comparable with hybrid electric vehicles. Driven by grid mix optimization, power generation efficiency improvement, and battery cost reduction, the cost-effectiveness of battery electric vehicles is expected to improve significantly over the coming decade and surpass hybrid electric vehicles. However, considerable uncertainty exists due to the potential impacts from factors such as gasoline price. Based on the analysis, it is recommended that the deployment of battery electric vehicles should be prioritized in intensively-used fleets such as taxis to realize high cost-effectiveness. Technology improvements both in terms of power generation and vehicle electrification are essential in improving the cost-effectiveness of battery electric vehicles.