The acceptability of road pricing in Vienna: the preference patterns of car drivers

The acceptability of road pricing has attracted considerable attention among researchers over the last decade, as is evident in the amount of literature about transport and environmental economics. The general conclusion from these studies has been that there is low acceptability for road pricing among car users. In this paper, we add more knowledge to the existing literature by conducting an acceptability study of road pricing in Vienna, where such a study has never been conducted before. We used a replication study approach where a previous approach used in the EU research project AFFORD (acceptability of fiscal and financial measures and organisational requirements for demand management) was replicated for Vienna and further supplemented with a conjoint analysis. In order to examining whether the Vienna study confirms previous findings. We investigated the acceptability of two concrete policy packages factors influencing this acceptability, and preference patterns that can be used in designing a road pricing policy for Vienna. The survey reveals a higher acceptability if road pricing schemes lead to perceived personal benefits. According to the multivariate analyses, the “personal outcome expectations”, “social norm” and “perceived effectiveness” variables account for more than 50 % of the criterion variance and therefore these are the most influential factors. Road pricing schemes can be an effective transport management instrument for a city particularly if they are associated with direct investment in public transport and public infrastructure. Thus, personal benefits can be perceived more easily and direct effects can be expected.     

Responses to differentiated road pricing schemes

Reducing traffic-related problems is an important issue that requires changes in travel behavior. It is argued that road pricing is an effective tool but that it would be more effective if charges are differentiated. A laboratory experiment employing a heterogeneous sample (n = 155) examined effects of differentiated road pricing schemes on understanding and behavioral change intentions. The results show that difficulties are experienced in calculating the charges for road pricing schemes differentiated with respect to both place and time. Suggesting learning effects, if presented with degree of differentiation gradually increasing compared to random orders, the highly differentiated schemes were evaluated faster, as more comprehensible, and perceived difficulty decreased. Elderly were less flexible than young people in indicating how they would respond, women were more flexible than men, and frequent drivers less flexible than non-frequent drivers. A distance-based road pricing scheme with a fixed charge per kilometer was on average ranked highest on preference compared to several other conceivable road pricing alternatives.     

An integrated framework to jointly model decisions of activity time allocation and work-related travel

Five activity-travel choice dimensions, including three activity time allocation decisions and two work-related travel choices, are jointly modeled using the structural equation model in order to accommodate the complex interactions among them. Via a two-step estimation approach, the behavioral pattern underlying activity-travel decisions is explicitly revealed. For example, it demonstrates the priority with respect to subsistence activity, maintenance activity, and recreation activity due to a limited time budget; and bus commuting behavior positively influences the time allocated to the maintenance activity. In addition, two attitudinal factors are constructed and confirmed to have important effects on the five behavioral dimensions, which contribute to reveal the decision-making process from the perspective of psychology. This comprehensive framework is expected to provide important implications for mobility management and urban planning.     

Road pricing: An international perspective

This paper reviews experience with road pricing in Europe and Asia. It considers the objectives of road pricing, and demonstrates that differences in objectives lead to differences in scheme design and performance. It reviews the criteria for design of road pricing systems, and the development of charging structures and technologies to meet those criteria. In particular it discusses the relative merits of pre-determined and congestion-dependent charging structures, and of off-vehicle and on-vehicle charging systems. It assesses the performance of road pricing systems to date, discusses objections to road pricing and demonstrates that the role of road pricing within a wider transport strategy and the use made of the revenue generated, will be important determinants of public acceptability. Finally it assesses the relative merits of alternative approaches to implementation and argues that these will need to pay as much regard to public acceptability as to technical performance.     

Reactance or acceptance? Reactions towards the introduction of road pricing

We tested the opposite predictions of reactance and dissonance theory, two popular psychological theories, with regard to the responses of car drivers to the introduction of the road pricing. Reactance theory predicts that persons who are convinced that a toll will come are more opposed than less convinced persons. In contrast, dissonance theory expects that convinced persons are more in favour of road pricing than less convinced persons. Aim of the study was to test which theory is more appropriate to explain user reactions towards the toll introduction. We experimentally manipulated the perceived likelihood (low, middle, high and a control condition) of a toll introduction for private cars on German motorways (N = 140 car drivers). In accordance with the predictions of dissonance theory, results revealed clearly that convinced persons about a definite introduction of road pricing developed more positive attitudes towards road pricing than less convinced persons, i.e., the strength of conviction about the introduction of road pricing has a strong effect on the attitudinal evaluation of road pricing. The implications are discussed.     

Achieving political acceptability for new transport infrastructure in congested urban regions

This paper analyzes the efficiency and political acceptability of road pricing and infrastructure policies targeted at relieving urban congestion. It combines a stylized transport model of an urban road network with a model of the political process that incorporates interactions between voters, citizen interest groups and politicians to explore the possibilities to reach political acceptability for efficient transport policies. In a numerical illustration, the paper compares a set of pricing and investment policies in terms of efficiency and acceptability. The illustration shows how conflicting interests can lead to non-efficient policies being chosen.     

An advanced traveler general information system for Fresno,California

This study estimates the effects of an advanced traveler general information system (ATGIS), which includes fuel consumption and health-related emissions cost information on transportation network users’ travel choice behavior for recurrent congestion conditions. The effects are estimated using four different formulations based on four different behavioral assumptions. Incorporating stochastic features in link cost estimation rather than in route choice, we provide a novel modeling approach that enables us to use transportation planning models of major metropolitan areas without a need for major computationally-expensive changes in the existing models. We examined the effects of an ATGIS on the Fresno, CA, road network and found several interesting results. First, the ATGIS impact is closely related to pre-system (prior to the implementation of an ATGIS) perceived fuel and emissions costs. Total travel time in the city can be reduced by 17% (no pre-system perceived costs) to 1% (accurate pre-system perceived costs), and even increased by 1% (higher-than-actual pre-system perceived costs). Second, the addition of emissions costs, although negligible relative to fuel and time costs, can effectively reduce total system-wide travel time by up to 1% and fuel consumption by up to 0.6% during peak hours. Third, the ATGIS can reduce annual social costs by as much as $1053 million (high gas price, no pre-system perception) to $48 million (medium gas price, accurate pre-system perception), which are comparable to social cost savings by a congestion pricing (CP) scheme in the study area.     

Context-dependent influence of road attributes and pricing policies on route choice behavior of truck drivers: results of a conjoint choice experiment

In this paper, we report the results of a stated choice experiment, which was conducted to examine truck drivers?? route choice behavior. Of particular interest are the questions (i) what is the relative importance of road accessibility considerations via-a-vis traditional factors influencing route choice behavior, (ii) what are the influences of particular personal and situational variables on the evaluation of route attributes, (iii) how sensitive are truck drivers for possible pricing policies, and (iv) is there a difference in impact if environmental concerns are framed as a bonus or as a pricing instrument. The main findings indicate that road accessibility characteristics have a substantial impact on route preferences which is of the same order of magnitude as variation in travel times. This suggests that provision of adequate travel information in itself can be an effective instrument to prevent negative externalities of good transport associated with shortest routes. Furthermore, the results indicate that truck drivers/route planners when choosing a route are relatively sensitive to road pricing schemes and rather insensitive to environmental bonuses.     

Analysis of variability in multi-day GPS imputed activity-travel diaries using multi-dimensional sequence alignment and panel effects regression models

The use of GPS devices and smartphones has made feasible the collection of multi-day activity-travel diaries. In turn, the availability of multi-day travel diary data opens up new avenues for analyzing dynamics of individual travel behavior. This paper addresses the issue of day-to-day variability in activity-travel behavior. The study, which is the first of its kind in China, applies a unique combination of methods to analyze the degree of dissimilarity between travel days using multi-day GPS data. First, multi-dimensional sequence alignment is applied to measure the degree of dissimilarity in individual daily activity-travel sequences between pairs of travel days. Next, a series of panel effects regression models is used to estimate the effects of socio-demographics and days of the week. The models are estimated using multi-day activity-travel patterns imputed from GPS-enabled smartphone data collected in Shanghai, China. Results indicate that (1) days of the week have significant effects on day-to-day variability in activity-travel behavior with weekday activity-travel sequences being more similar and thereby different from weekend sequences; (2) the degree of dissimilarity in activity-travel sequences is strongly influenced by respondent socio-demographic profiles; (3) individuals having more control over and flexibility in their work schedule show greater intra-personal variability. Day-to-day variability in activity-travel behavior of this sample is similar to patterns observed in developed countries in some aspects but different in others. Strict international comparison study based on comparative data collection is required to further distinguish the sources of travel behavior differences between developing countries and developed countries. The paper ends with a discussion of the limitations of this study and the implications of the research findings for future research.     

The influence of personality on acceptability of sustainable transport policies

Previous research has shown that fairness, infringement on freedom, and perceived effectiveness are determinants of transport pricing acceptability. In the present study we investigate determinants of acceptability of environmental (carbon) taxation for which trust in government and environmental concern are additional determinants. Carbon taxation is an extension of fuel taxes and may thus be viewed as transport pricing. Our main focus is on the role played by personality traits. Structural equation modeling reveals that acceptability is related to the personality traits extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Extraverted individuals have higher levels of trust in government which leads to higher acceptability. Also correlations between agreeableness and conscientiousness as well as environmental problem awareness and personal norm are observed. We discuss strategies for effective marketing of transportation policies considering how acceptability is related to personality traits.     

A forecast air pollution model applied to a hypothetical urban road pricing scheme: An empirical study in Madrid

Reducing the air pollution from increases in traffic congestion in large cities and their surroundings is an important problem that requires changes in travel behavior. Road pricing is an effective tool for reducing air pollution, as reflected currently urban road pricing outcomes (Singapore, London, Stockholm and Milan). A survey was conducted based on establishing a hypothetical urban road pricing system in Madrid (a random sample size n = 1298). We developed a forecast air pollution model with time series analysis to evaluate the consequences of possible air pollution decreases in Madrid. Results reveal that the hypothetical road pricing for Madrid could have highly significant effects on decreasing air pollution outside of the city and in the inner city during the peak operating time periods of maximum congestion (morning peak hours from 7:00 to 10:00 and evening peak hours from 18:00 to 20:00). Furthermore, this system could have significant positive effects on a shift toward using public transport and non-motorized modes inside the hypothetical toll zone. This reveals that the system has a high capacity to motivate a decrease in air pollution and impose more sustainable behavior for public transport users.     

Day-to-day variability in travellers’ activity-travel patterns in the Jakarta metropolitan area

Using four consecutive days of SITRAMP 2004 data from the Jakarta metropolitan area (JMA), Indonesia, this study examines the interactions between individuals’ activity-travel parameters, given the variability in their daily constraints, resources, land use and road network conditions. While there have been a significant number of studies into day-to-day variability in travel behaviour in developed countries, this issue is rarely examined in developing countries. The results show that some activity-travel parameter interactions are similar to those produced by travellers from developed countries, while others differ. Household and individual characteristics are the most significant variables influencing the interactions between activity-travel parameters. Different groups of travellers exhibit different trade-off mechanisms. Further analyses of the stability of activity-travel patterns across different days are also provided. Daily commuting time and regular work and study commitments heavily shape workers’ and students’ flexibility in arranging their travel time and out-of-home time budget, leading to more stable daily activity-travel patterns than non-workers.     

Effect of advanced traveler information systems and road pricing in a network with non-recurrent congestion

The effect of the application of advanced transport information system (ATIS) and road pricing is studied in a transportation system under non-recurrent congestion. A stochastic network deterministic user equilibrium model (SNDUE) with elastic demand is formulated and used to evaluate the welfare and private impacts of different market penetrations of ATIS, together with road pricing for a simple network. Both marginal first-best road pricing and a second-best fixed road pricing are considered. The incentives of private users to use ATIS are analyzed and the characteristics of optimum tolls as a function of ATIS market penetration are shown. We conclude that ATIS is an efficient and necessary tool to reduce the effects of non-recurrent incidents in a transportation network, especially when non-recurrent congestion causes a significant deterioration of operational conditions of the network. If the impact of non-recurrent incidents on free flow costs is small or is reduced only to congestion effects, the use of road pricing would be more efficient. Social benefits obtained when jointly implementing ATIS and road pricing are practically the same whether first-best or second-best road pricing is used. Considering the private costs perceived by the network users, and the benefits experienced by equipped users, the maximum level of market penetration achieved could be limited because private benefits disappear after certain market penetration is obtained.     

Electronic road pricing: An idea whose time may never come

Hong Kong's experiment with electronic road pricing showed that the technology was completely feasible. However, the government was unable to implement the scheme due to strong opposition from a public that perceived it as an invasion of privacy and a tax increase. This outcome was partly a result of forces unique to Hong Kong's political culture as well as both strategic and tactical errors made by the Hong Kong government in presenting its proposal. However, the Hong Kong experience also raises serious questions about whether a sophisticated road pricing scheme will ever be acceptable in a democratic urban polity.     

Spatial impacts of road pricing: Accessibility, regional spillovers and territorial cohesion

Road pricing policies are gaining prominence in EU countries. These policies have positive impacts leading to mobility patterns which are socially and environmentally more desirable, but they also have negative impacts. One negative impact is to be found in regional accessibility, due to the increase in generalized transport costs. This study presents a methodology based on accessibility indicators and GIS to assess the accessibility impacts of a road pricing policy. The methodology was tested for the Spain’s road network considering two road pricing scenarios. It enables not only the more penalized regions to be identified but also negative road pricing spillover effects between regions. These effects are measured in terms of accessibility changes occurring in one region produced by charges implemented in another region. Finally, the study of accessibility disparities (by calculating inequality indexes for each of the scenarios considered), provides policymakers with useful information regarding the impact of road pricing policies from the point of view of territorial cohesion.     

Interactive geovisualization of activity-travel patterns using three-dimensional geographical information systems: a methodological exploration with a large data set

A major difficulty in the analysis of disaggregate activity-travel behavior in the past arises from the many interacting dimensions involved (e.g. location, timing, duration and sequencing of trips and activities). Often, the researcher is forced to decompose activity-travel patterns into their component dimensions and focus only on one or two dimensions at a time, or to treat them as a multidimensional whole using multivariate methods to derive generalized activity-travel patterns. This paper describes several GIS-based three-dimensional (3D) geovisualization methods for dealing with the spatial and temporal dimensions of human activity-travel patterns at the same time while avoiding the interpretative complexity of multivariate pattern generalization or recognition methods. These methods are operationalized using interactive 3D GIS techniques and a travel diary data set collected in the Portland (Oregon) metropolitan region. The study demonstrates several advantages in using these methods. First, significance of the temporal dimension and its interaction with the spatial dimension in structuring the daily space-time trajectories of individuals can be clearly revealed. Second, they are effective tools for the exploratory analysis of activity diary data that can lead to more focused analysis in later stages of a study. They can also help the formulation of more realistic computational or behavioral travel models.     

Scheduling decision styles on leisure and social activities

This paper investigates scheduling decisions associated with different types of leisure and social activities. Correlations among decisions and self-selection biases are explicitly investigated by using a sample selection model with a bivariate probit selection rule. A dataset collected in the first wave of a recent activity-travel scheduling panel survey carried out in Valencia (Spain) was used for empirical investigation. Significant differences are revealed in the empirical models for leisure and social activities in planning decisions, including different effects of temporal, companionship and demographic factors. The findings of the empirical model have important implications to travel behavior and activity-travel scheduling model developments. These results confirm the existence of different mechanisms underlying the activity-travel decision processes when leisure and social activities are of concerns. Results provide significant insights into enhancing the performances of an activity scheduling model by capturing accurate activity-travel scheduling tradeoffs in flexible activity types e.g. leisure and social activities.     

Enhanced traffic information dissemination to facilitate toll road utilization: a nested logit model of a stated preference survey in Texas

This paper investigates the effects of the provision of traffic information on toll road usage based on a stated preference survey conducted in central Texas. Although many researchers have studied congestion pricing and traffic information dissemination extensively, most of them focused on the effects that these instruments individually produce on transportation system performance. Few studies have been conducted to elaborate on the impacts of traffic information dissemination on toll road utilization. In this study, 716 individuals completed a survey to measure representative public opinions and preferences for toll road usage in support of various traffic information dissemination classified by different modes, contents, and timeliness categories. A nested logit model was developed and estimated to identify the significant attributes of traffic information dissemination, traveler commuting patterns, routing behavior, and demographic characteristics, and analyze their impacts on toll road utilization. The results revealed that the travelers using dynamic message sign systems as their primary mode of receiving traffic information are more likely to choose toll roads. The potential toll road users also indicated their desire to obtain traffic information via internet. Information regarding accident locations, road hazard warnings, and congested roads is frequently sought by travelers. Furthermore, high-quality congested road information dissemination can significantly enhance travelers’ preferences of toll road usage. Specifically the study found that travelers anticipated an average travel time saving of about 11.3 min from better information; this is about 30 % of travelers’ average one-way commuting time. The mean value of the time savings was found to be about $11.82 per hour, close to ½ of the average Austin wage rate. The model specifications and result analyses provide in-depth insights in interpreting travelers’ behavioral tendencies of toll road utilization in support of traffic information. The results are also helpful to shape and develop future transportation toll system and transportation policy.     

Road Pricing models with maintenance cost

According to the Federal Highway Administration of the United States, maintenance expenditure takes up more than 25% of road revenue disbursement and this percentage has been increasing gradually. The reason for the increment in maintenance cost is that there lacks incentives for road users to take this cost component into their driving behavior. That is, different classes of vehicles should be levied different levels of congestion tax due to the different degrees of damage on the highway if a road pricing policy is implemented. This paper intends to incorporate this concept into road pricing literature by introducing two types of vehicles. After the analysis of the problem, we find that different types of vehicles should be charged different tolls. The toll includes not only the travel delay cost of one's own vehicle and the other types of vehicles, but also the marginal maintenance cost that is dependent on the traffic flow. A set of numerical examples is provided to demonstrate the theoretical analyses. The result shows that both the welfare and cost coverage rate will increase when the road pricing mechanism takes the maintenance cost factor into account.