Deep water mass characteristics and interannual variability in the North and Central Aegean Sea

The characteristics and interannual variability of the deep water masses in the North and Central Aegean Sea are being investigated through the data sets of the Hellenic Navy Hydrographic Service (HNHS) and the MEDATLAS 1997 project. In the period between 1987 and 1993, the densest deep water in the Mediterranean has been produced in the Aegean Sea (with σ_θ densities reaching up to 29.6 kg/m³), contributing to what has been called the Eastern Mediterranean Transient. The examination of time series of mean integrated values of θ, S and σ_θ below the depth of 500 dbar reveals the significant deep water density increase after 1987 in all of the deep basins in the area. Data suggest that the density increase of 1987–1988 is mainly attributed to a temperature drop, while in 1993, an even more intense density increase is observed, characterized this time by an abrupt salinity increase. We assume that the increased salinity necessary to produce deep water masses with the observed characteristics was not locally produced but rather advected from the Levantine through the South Aegean. After 1993, no new deep water formation episodes have been observed. A series of Θ–S diagrams derived from HNHS CTD casts covering the period between 1993 and 2000, depict the different characteristics of the deep water masses in the area. As 1993 marks the end of the formation period, observed differences between basins in that year must be attributed to different deep water formation sites. Thereafter, the stagnating deep water in the North and Central Aegean basins has been slowly gaining buoyancy by losing salt and gaining heat. The rate at which this phenomenon takes place varies between different deep basins. It is suggested that these variations are linked to the different volumes of each basin as well as to the general circulation features of the Aegean Sea.     

Formation of Denmark Strait overflow water and its hydro-chemical composition

The dense overflow across the Denmark Strait is investigated with hydrographic and hydro-chemical data and the water mass composition of the Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW) is determined by multivariate analysis. Hydrographical properties, the transient tracers CFC-11 and CFC-12, oxygen and nutrients are utilized for the water mass definitions. Distribution and characteristics of water masses north of Denmark Strait are described, the important water masses at the sill and the variability on weekly time-scales are discussed, and the entrainment and mixing of water into the overflow plume in the northern Irminger Basin is calculated. The analysis indicates that water masses both from the Nordic Seas and the Arctic Ocean are important for the formation of DSOW. It is found that water masses transported with the East Greenland Current make up about 75% of the overflow at the sill. The overflow at, and shortly south of, the sill is inhomogeneous with a low-salinity component dominated by Polar Intermediate Water. The high-salinity component of the overflow is mainly of Arctic origin. The water mass composition, and the short-term variability for 7 repeats of sections close to the sill are described, and these illustrate that the overflow is in fact a composite of a number of water masses with different formation and transport histories. This indicate that the overflow is a robust feature, but that it responds to variations in the circulation or atmospheric forcing that influences the formation of intermediate and deep water masses within the Arctic Mediterranean and the North Atlantic. At a section about 400 km south of the sill the overflow is well mixed and modified by entrainment of, mainly, Iceland–Scotland Overflow Water and Labrador Sea Water, together constituting 30% of the overflow plume. The entrainment of Middle Irminger Water dominates shortly downstream of the sill, before the overflow plume reaches too deep but the entrainment seems to be intermittent in time.     

Natural and anthropogenic hydrocarbons in the water column of the Ross Sea (Antarctica)

In the framework of the Italian Research Programme in Antarctica (PNRA) an oceanographic cruise was carried out between December 2000 and February 2001 in the Western Ross Sea. n-Alkanes and PAHs concentrations were analysed in sea-water samples collected at different depths at four sites (D, B, CA2, and CA). Vertical profiles of pressure, temperature, salinity and fluorescence were also performed in order to distinguish the water masses present in the sampling areas. n-Alkanes concentrations were consistent with those found in the same area during previous expeditions and showed higher values in the particulate due to the low temperatures. n-Alkanes profiles exhibited different features in the dissolved and particulate phases. The dissolved phase was characterised by a bimodal distribution with two maxima at C16 and C24 and prevalent compounds in the range C15–C32 whereas particulate was strongly dominated by long chain n-alkanes C23–C34 with C24 (Site B, CA and CA2) or C32 (Site B) as Cmax. CPI values and Pr/Ph ratios suggested a prevalent biogenic origin for aliphatic hydrocarbons. n-Alkanes vertical distributions were affected by the dynamic of the pack-ice melting and phytoplankton activity as well by the chemical–physical properties of water masses. Higher n-alkanes values were found in the High Salinity Shelf Waters (HSSW), lower n-alkanes values were found in the Antarctic Surface Waters (AASW) and Modified Circumpolar Deep Water (MCDW).The low PAHs concentration levels confirmed the still pristine character of the Antarctic environment. Neither particular trend in total PAHs concentrations along the water column and nor correlations with the most characteristic water masses of the investigated area of the Ross Sea were observed, except that total PAH higher concentrations were generally observed in correspondence of HSSW.     

A conceptual model of the strongly tidal Columbia River plume

The Columbia River plume is typical of large-scale, high discharge, mid-latitude plumes. In the absence of strong upwelling winds, freshwater from the river executes a rightward turn and forms an anticyclonic bulge before moving north along the Washington coast. In addition to the above dynamics, however, the river plume outflow is subject to large tides, which modify the structure of the plume in the region near the river mouth. Observations based on data acquired during a summer 2005 cruise indicate that the plume consists of four distinct water masses; source water at the lift-off point, and the tidal, re-circulating and far-field plumes. In contrast to most plume models that describe the discharge of low-salinity estuary water into ambient high-salinity coastal water, we describe the Columbia plume as the superposition of these four plume types.We focus primarily on a conceptual summary of the dynamics and mutual interaction of the tidal and re-circulating plumes. The new tidal plume flows over top of the re-circulating plume and is typically bounded by strong fronts. Soon after the end of ebb tide, it covers roughly 50–100% of the re-circulating plume surface area. The fronts may penetrate well below the re-circulating plume water and eventually spawn internal waves that mix the re-circulating plume further. The re-circulating plume persists throughout the tidal cycle and corresponds to a freshwater volume equivalent to 3–4 days of river discharge. Finally, the plume water masses are distinguished from one another in term of surface chlorophyll concentration, suggesting that the above classification may also describe different biological growth regimes. The low-salinity re-circulating plume serves as an extension of the estuary into the coastal ocean, or an “estuary at sea”, because residence times during periods of high river flow are greater than those in the estuary.     

Autumn net copepod abundance and assemblages in relation to water masses on the continental shelf of the Yellow Sea and East China Sea

Copepod species diversity, abundance and assemblages in relation to water masses over the continental shelf of the Yellow Sea (YS) and East China Sea (ECS) were studied extensively based on the net plankton samples in autumn 2000. Multivariate analysis based on copepod assemblage resulted in recognition of five groups (Groups 1−5) corresponding to the water masses. Groups 1 and 2 delineated from inshore stations with low salinity YS Surface Water, and offshore stations with YS Cold Water in the YS. Group 3 located in the joint area of YS and ECS mainly with Mixed Water. Groups 4 and 5 in the ECS delineated two assemblages mainly from inshore and shallow stations with ECS Mixed Water in the southeastern ECS, and offshore stations along the ECS shelf edge controlled by saline Kuroshio Water. Salinity and temperature were more important in characterizing copepod assemblage of the continental shelf than chlorophyll a.     

Radioactive tracers as a tool in coastal oceanography: An overview of the MAST-52 project

Radionuclides (⁹⁹Tc, ¹²⁵Sb, ⁹⁰Sr, ¹³⁷Cs) discharged from La Hague in France have been used to trace advection and dispersion of water masses in the “European Coastal Current” from the English Channel to the Baltic. Time-series of radionuclide measurements in water samples taken in the English Channel, at the Netherlands coast, in the German North Sea sector and in Danish waters have been compared with reported discharge values. The prospects for using ¹²⁹I measured by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) as an oceanographic tracer have been evaluated as positive. The ⁹⁹Tc analytical procedure have been improved and background levels of ⁹⁹Tc, ¹³⁷Cs and ⁹⁰Sr in open North Atlantic seawater without influence from European discharges have been determined. An intercomparison programme have documented the quality of the measured ⁹⁹Tc and ¹²⁵Sb data. Transit times and transfer factors from La Hague to different locations in the study area have been estimated. It is concluded, that 10% of the La Hague discharge is transported through Kattegat and that 1/3 of the inflowing Kattegat bottom water originates from the coastal current. Three fundamentally different numeric models have been further developed under the project. The measured data have then been compared with values simulated by the three models. Models as well as measured data indicate, that a close coastal transport with longer transit times and often higher concentrations than seen in the open water main current is taking place. This coastal transport is important when contaminant transport is monitored. It is concluded, that the collected data gives a unique opportunity to evaluate models on advection and dispersion of coastal water masses and contaminants. The database will be made available as a tool for the evaluation of such models.     

CO2 air–sea disequilibrium and preformed alkalinity in the Pacific and Indian oceans calculated from subsurface layer data

This work estimates new regionalized empirical parameterizations for preformed alkalinity (A_T^o) and the CO₂ air–sea disequilibrium (?C_dis). Both are key terms for the computation of anthropogenic CO₂ in the back-calculation methods. Data from the subsurface layer (75–180 m depth range) covering an area from North to South and from 19°E to 67.5°W (Pacific and Indian oceans) were taken from GLODAP (The Global Ocean Data Analysis Project) database. The subsurface layer is proved as a reliable reference for representing the main characteristics of the different water masses of the oceans. Besides, handing data from the two ocean basins altogether makes the new parameterizations of A_T^o and ?C_dis to be more globally consistent. Nevertheless, each ocean basin, at least in some regions, has different oceanographic characteristics based on its proper dynamical processes and water masses formation. In order to maintain each ocean basin ‘identity’ the whole domain was divided in six different regions (two of them sharing waters from Pacific and Indian oceans) and parameterizations in each region for both terms were obtained. Previously, data were transformed into a grid of 4°lat. × 5°lon. and the results obtained from the parameterizations were visualized and compare with pCO₂ climatologies. From the comparisons with previous ?C_dis estimations good results are obtained showing the reliability and robustness of the new regionalized empiric parameterizations.     

Evidence of double diffusion in the East China Sea

Double diffusion is an important phenomenon induced by the difference between the thermal conducting coefficient of the molecule and haline diffusive coefficient. Warm, salty water overlying cold, fresh water induces salt finger. On the contrary, when cold, fresh water overlies warm, salty water, diffusive convection occurs. In the East China Sea, double diffusion was observed during a cruise in September 2003. In order to describe the phenomenon precisely, Turner (TU) angle values are calculated station by station at Section YT. TU angle is a practical tool to indicate the water states. Different TU angle values represent salt finger, diffusive convection and stable stratification respectively. We map the distributions of the two forms of double diffusion at Section YT, and determine that the physical mechanism of the phenomenon is the mixing of water masses. The Changjiang Diluted Water (CDW) has great effect on the mixing of water masses, and the Kuroshio Water System dominates on the continental slope. Temperature and salinity varied in a manner consistent with double diffusion.     

On the dense water spreading off the Ross Sea shelf (Southern Ocean)

In this study, current meter and hydrological data obtained during the X Italian Expedition in the Ross Sea (CLIMA Project) are analyzed. Our data show a nice agreement with previous data referring to the water masses present in this area and their dynamics. Here, they are used to further analyze the mixing and deepening processes of Deep Ice Shelf Water (DISW) over the northern shelf break of the Ross Sea. In more detail, our work is focused on the elementary mechanisms that are the most efficient in removing dense water from the shelf: either classical mixing effects or density currents that interact with some topographic irregularity in order to drop to deeper levels, or also the variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) which, in its meandering, can push the dense water off the shelf, thus interrupting its geostrophic flow. We also discuss in detail the (partial) evidence of dramatic interactions of the dense water with bottom particulate, of geological or biological origin, thus generating impulsive or quasi-steady density-turbidity currents. This complex interaction allows one to consider bottom particular and dense water as a unique self-interacting system. In synthesis, this is a first tentative analysis of the effect of bottom particulate on the dense water dynamics in the Ross Sea.     

基于火力协同的攻击机对地突击研究

针对攻击机协同突击地面目标的问题,建立了考虑武器齐射限制、挂载数量和火力协同的数学模型。提出了空地武器的可攻击区概念,根据可攻击区交叉重叠的特点,建立了空地武器间协同度的计算模型。最后,通过具体的作战想定,运用动态规划的方法对模型进行了求解,并给出了最佳火力运用方案,为攻击机协同对地突击研究提供了参考。     

Spatial distribution of cadmium over a cyclonic eddy in the southern East China Sea

Eddy systems are a unique ecosystem, usually having high biological masses and primary production in the sea. In this study, both particulate and dissolved phases of cadmium in the water column of 15 stations over a cyclonic eddy in the southern East China Sea were determined to obtain their spatial distributions. This allows us to confirm that cyclonic eddy systems play the role of a Cd pump in the sea.Results showed that particulate Cd (PCd) and dissolved Cd (DCd) concentrations in water varied greatly, ranging over two orders and one order of magnitude, respectively. Large spatial variability was found not only for PCd but also for DCd in the upper water, apparently due to the effects of the cyclonic eddy system on the Cd distributions over the study area. DCd accounts for about 99% of the total Cd. For the surface water, DCd concentration at the eddy center was about five times the average of the water surrounding the eddy center. The depth distributions of DCd exhibited a typical surface depletion and a subsequent increase with depth; however, the PCd distribution showed the opposite, i.e. a surface maximum and a subsequent decline with depth. In general, the DCd maxima were found at depths of 600–1000 m, agreeing well with the literature. It reflected the internal biogeochemical cycling of Cd in the water column, which was driven by the utilization of Cd by plankton in the euphotic zone and by the regeneration of Cd at depth. In addition, a remarkably high DCd concentration existed in near-bottom water around the cyclonic eddy center.The horizontal distributions of both PCd and DCd in the upper water shared a common feature with elevated concentrations centering around the eddy center and a decline in concentration with distance from the eddy center. This shows that the cyclonic eddy could bring up the Cd-rich deep water to the surface water around the eddy center and could then expand toward eddy's vicinity via advection–diffusion. It is thus likely that it produces ample biological masses over the eddy system. Hence, this work can demonstrate that the ascending nutrient-rich water driven by the cyclonic eddies can serve as an important source not only for many nutrients but also for Cd in the sea.     

Distribution and exchange of water masses in the Northeast Water polynya (Greenland Sea)

On the basis of classical hydrographic and nutrient analysis, water masses and their spreading in the Northeast Water (NEW) Polynya were investigated from RV Polarstern ARK IX (1993) data. It is shown that a local water body, East Greenland Shelf Water, occupies the top layer in the NEW and that this water is different from Polar Water exported from the Arctic Polar Ocean. Polar Water, as well as the underlying and also imported Knee Water, follows a path crossing the broad East Greenland Shelf diagonally from northeast to southwest but both waters do not enter the NEW Polynya. Intermediate waters in the NEW are also modified locally. A local source of silicate, contributing to an intermediate silicate maximum in the trough system, is identified in the centre of the anticyclonic movement over Belgica Bank. Furthermore, it is confirmed that there is no one-directional through-flow of deeper waters in the trough system. Belgica Trough and Westwind Trough contain two different water types of Atlantic origin, which are not directly related to Return Atlantic Waters. The deeper waters in Norske Trough are supplied from Belgica Trough over a sill of about 250 m depth.     

Surface patterns of zooplankton spatial variability detected by high frequency sampling in the NW Mediterranean. Role of density fronts

High frequency sampling was performed in daylight hours along a 35 km transect in the Ligurian Sea to investigate the upper layer zooplankton distribution during the spring phytoplankton bloom. The results show detailed spatial structure and biomass of key zooplankton functional groups, copepods, salps and krill larvae, within the different water masses characterizing this region. Although observed values of total copepod biomass distribution were rather constant along the transect, species-specific patterns were observed in the copepod spatial distribution. The larger species Calanus helgolandicus, as well as Centropages typicus, Oithona spp., and Oncaea spp., were associated with the frontal zone. However, Acartia spp. had a scattered distribution, and Clausocalanus/Paracalanus did not have a clear pattern. In addition, krill larvae were concentrated in the frontal area and salps had a scattered pattern. The cross-shore zooplankton distribution appeared strongly influenced by both the Northern Ligurian current governing inshore waters, which acts as a major flushing forcing, and the Ligurian front, which governs offshore waters and may act as retention area for zooplankton.     

灌河口海域泥沙悬浮和沉降试验研究

掌握灌河口海域泥沙运动规律是开展灌河口航道整治研究的基础。以现场所取泥沙为研究对象,通过大型波浪水槽试验研究灌河口海域泥沙在不同的水深、不同的波周期和波高条件下的悬浮规律。通过静水沉降试验研究灌河口海域泥沙在不同初始浓度、不同水深下的沉降特性。结果表明,在极限波高情况下,水体上部区域含沙量较小,且沿垂线分布变化较小,但水体底部附近含沙量较大,总体上底部含沙量比上部水体含沙量大0.25~0.96 kg m^3;不同水深以及不同初始含沙量情况下,泥沙沉降速度0.08~0.20 cm s,与单颗粒泥沙沉速在同一量级,灌河口海域泥沙絮凝作用较弱。     

Copepod diversity in the water masses of the southern East China Sea north of Taiwan

The warm oceanic current Kuroshio and the continental shelf water of the East China Sea meet in the western North Pacific, north of Taiwan and form an upwelling when they converge. The intrusion of the Kuroshio westward over the East China Sea shelf thus results in complicated exchanges of waters between these two water masses. We studied the copepods in the plankton collection taken from an east–west transect crossing these waters in April 1995 when the intrusion of the Kuroshio over the East China Sea shelf was beginning to retreat. The taxonomy of copepods was carefully treated and erroneous species records reported in the literature were guarded against. We evaluated the copepod diversity, the association of copepod species, and the association of stations in these water masses.     

Using OMP analysis to observe temporal variability in water mass distribution

Previous optimum multiparameter analyses have investigated spatial distribution of water masses and reported successful results. This study tests the method further with application to a time series to examine temporal variability in water mass distribution. Observations collected from the Sargasso Sea are utilised, mainly to detect well-documented property changes that have occurred in Labrador Sea Water, but also possible fluctuations in water mass contributions as a whole.The results show much structure and variability in the contributions of Central Water and upper deep waters in the depth range 900–2000 m. It is proposed that the passage of warm and cold core eddies is indicated by these changes in relative contributions of water masses, although quantitative comparison of satellite altimetry data with the model results is not conclusive.Significant irregularities in the distribution of Labrador Sea Water are also revealed by the model. Through-flow of modified (since the early 1990s) Labrador Sea Water is denoted in the results by an apparent absence from mid-1995 to early 1998. This suggests a transit time of 5–6 years between the Labrador Sea and Bermuda, which is consistent with observational findings described in the literature.     

基于系统仿真的港池宽度对港口服务水平的影响

沿海港区规模化及船舶大型化趋势对港口服务水平提出了更高要求,水域尺度是影响港口服务水平的重要因素之一。在分析不同港池宽度的沿海港区船舶进出港作业流程的基础上,利用Anylogic仿真平台构建船舶进出港作业系统仿真模型,研究港池宽度对港口服务水平的影响。仿真模拟宽、窄、中3种港池宽度下的船舶进出港作业系统的结果表明:较窄港池、中港池水域面积增加25%,可提升港口服务水平达36%;宽港池水域面积增加48%,港口服务水平可提升90%。     

天津港人工沙滩环抱水域泥沙回淤研究

为提高对环抱堤内水域的泥沙回淤状况的认识,以天津港东疆人工沙滩环抱堤内水域为实例,通过综合分析浑水现象调查、悬沙粒径时空分布、含沙量时空分布、余流等方面的资料得出了环抱堤内水域的泥沙来源,然后采用套图法计算了地形冲淤变化并分析了冲淤原因。结果表明,环抱堤内的浑水主要随涨潮水体自口门外流入;淤积区域的年均淤积厚度约为0.2 m,环流集中区所在的重淤积区的淤积厚度约为平均淤积厚度的2~4倍;口门约束形成的大流速和从口门直接入射的波浪,以及NE向小风区波浪的作用,造成口门—宾馆区沙滩水域出现深度约为0.2 m的冲刷带;环抱堤内水域的冲、淤分布与动力条件分布密切相关。     

Determination of anthropogenic CO2 in the North Atlantic Ocean using water mass ages and CO2 equilibrium chemistry

A new method to calculate the anthropogenic CO₂ (ΔDIC_ant) within the water column of the North Atlantic Ocean is presented. The method exploits the equilibrium chemistry of the carbonate system with reference to temperature, salinity and the partial pressure of atmospheric CO₂ (pCO_2,atm). ΔDIC_ant is calculated with reference to the ventilation ages of water masses derived from tracer data and to the time history of pCO_2,atm. The method is applied to data recorded during the WOCE program on the WHP A1/E transect in the North Atlantic Ocean, where we characterise six key water masses by their relationships of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and apparent oxygen utilisation (AOU). The error in determining ΔDIC_ant is reduced significantly by minimising the number of values referred to, especially by avoiding any use of remineralisation ratios of particulate organic matter. The distribution of ΔDIC_ant shows highest values of up to 45 μmol kg⁻¹ in the surface waters falling to 28–33 μmol kg⁻¹ in the Irminger Sea west of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The eastern basin is imprinted by older water masses revealing decreasing values down to 10 μmol kg⁻¹ ΔDIC_ant in the Antarctic Bottom Water. These findings indicate the penetration of the whole water column of the North Atlantic Ocean by anthropogenic CO₂.