A comparison of two methodologies for selecting transit performance indicators

Two contrasting methodologies have appeared in the literature for selecting indicators to evaluate the performance of public transit firms. One methodology specifies the criteria that the selected performance indicators must satisfy. The other methodology requires the specification of operating objectives by the transit firm for the purpose of then selecting performance indicators. This paper compares the two methodologies and discusses the attributes of one methodology versus those of the other methodology. Also, a major difference in the premises of the two methodologies is demonstrated.     

Demi-flexible operating policies to promote the performance of public transit in low-demand areas

The efforts of providing attractive transport service to residents in sparse communities have previously focused on operating flexible transit services. This paper identifies a new category of transit policies, called demi-flexible operating policies, to fill the gap between flexible transit services and conventional fixed-route systems. The passenger cost function is defined as the performance measure of transit systems and the analytic work is performed based on a real-world flag-stop transit service, in which we compare its system performance with another two comparable systems, the fixed-route and flex-route services, at expected and unexpected demand levels in order to be closer to reality. In addition, the dynamic-station policy is introduced to assist the flex-route service to better deal with unexpectedly high demand. Experiments demonstrate the unique advantages of demi-flexible operating policies in providing affordable, efficient, and reliable transport service in low-demand operating environments and this work is helpful to optimize the unifying framework for designing public transit in suburban and rural areas.     

Transit system evaluation: Guideway bus vs. light rail transit

This paper describes a set of specialized spreadsheets that model the cost and performance of transit system options including light rail transit, guideway bus, express bus, and ride sharing. These spreadsheets are demonstrated by comparing a guideway bus (GWB) transit system and a light rail transit (LRT) system proposed for construction in an active rail corridor. The comparisons for assumed levels of transit ridership include guideway geometry, travel time, headways, vehicle requirements, grade crossing protection, and capital and operating costs. The planned GWB system runs on an exclusive dual guideway in the rail right-of-way, and the alternative LRT system operates on the existing rails with new bridges and track as needed for a dual guideway system. The analysis compares the two options for mode splits between 0.5% and 50%. Results show that while both options have approximately the same travel time, the GWB system costs approximately 30% less than the LRT system. The cost difference results primarily from lower GWB vehicle purchase and operating costs. The spreadsheets are available through the McTrans Center at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.     

It is time to give the “true PRT” concept a fair test

True Personal Rapid Transit (PRT), in concept and technology, is considerably advanced over PRT as proposed in the 1960s and 1970s. It is one of the few advanced transit concepts—perhaps the only one—that offers a prospect of overcoming the continued serious deficiencies of conventional transit systems. Past criticisms of PRT were often invalid, but even those questions that deserved to be taken seriously then no longer justify a postponement of serious PRT testing. Conventional transit, in spite of over two decades of considerable governmental support, is proving unable to satisfy major transportation needs of American urban areas, which are increasingly dispersed and multi-centered. There is no indication that conventional transit can overcome sufficiently its performance and economic deficiencies. If PRT is not given a chance to be tested, local public officials will continue to be faced with too limited options as between auto-dominated transportation services and high subsidies for inadequate transit solutions.     

A test of inter-modal performance measures for transit investment decisions

Choices among alternative transit capital investments are often complex and politically controversial. There is renewed interest in the use of performance indicators to assist in making rational and defensible choices for the investment of public funds. To improve the evaluation of rail and bus performance and provide more useful information for transit investment decision-makers, it is important to use performance indicators that fairly and efficiently compare different transit modes. This paper proposes a set of inter-modal performance indicators in which service input, service output, and service consumption are measured by total cost, revenue capacity miles/hours, and unlinked passenger trips/miles respectively based on economic principles and evaluation objectives. The proposed improvements involve the inclusion of capital as well as operating costs in such comparisons, and the recognition of the widely varying capacities of transit vehicles for seated and standing passengers. Two California cases, the Los Angeles – Long Beach Corridor and the Market/Judah Corridor in San Francisco, are used for testing their usefulness in the evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of rail and bus services. The results show substantial differences between performance indicators in current use and those proposed in this study. The enhanced inter-modal performance indicators are more appropriate for comparing the efficiency and effectiveness of different modes or a combination of transit modes at the corridor and system levels where most major investment decisions are made. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

An improved procedure for allocating public transit operating subsidies in Canada

This article addresses the need for an improved methodology for the allocation of public transit operating subsidies (PTOS) by the provinces in Canada, to their respective municipalities. A PTOS allocation procedure which may be adapted by each province to meet its individual objectives is proposed. This allocation procedure consists of a two-part grant, the first is population-based in consideration of attributes of the urban area and the second is performance-based, in consideration of attributes of the transit system itself. Issues of implementation concern primarily extended data collection methods and the need for consistency in the use of transit system performance measures.     

An analysis of public bus transit performance in Indian cities

Maintaining and enhancing public transit service in Indian cities is important, to meet rapidly growing mass mobility needs, and curb personal motor vehicle activity and its impacts at low cost. Indian cities rely predominantly on buses for public transport, and are likely to continue to do so for years. However, the public bus transit service is inadequate, and unaffordable for the urban poor. The paper explores the factors that contribute to and affect efforts to improve this situation, based on an analysis of the financial and operational performance of the public bus transit service in the four metropolitan centres and four secondary cities during the 1990s. Overall, there were persistent losses, owing to increasing input costs and declining productivity. The losses occurred despite rapidly increasing fares, and ridership declined. The situation, and the ability to address it, is worse in the secondary cities than the metropolitan centres. We suggest a disaggregated approach based on the needs and motivations of different groups in relation to public transit, along with improved operating conditions and policies to internalize costs of personal motor vehicle use, to address the challenge of providing financially viable and affordable public bus transit service.     

A standalone-cost costing methodology for a multiservice transit firm

Every multiservice transit firm faces the problem of determining the share of the firm's costs to be borne by each service. A standalone-cost costing methodology for determining such cost shares is proposed. This costing methodology may also be used to investigate the cost efficiency or inefficiency of a multiservice transit firm. The applicability of the methodology is demonstrated in applying it to a multiservice public transit firm, the Tidewater Transportation District Commission, by estimating standalone costs using a statistical cost function for the organization. In addition to multiservice transit firms, the methodology may also be applied to any type of multiservice transportation firm.     

A slack arrival strategy to promote flex-route transit services

Flex-route transit, which combines the advantages of fixed-route transit and demand-responsive transit, is one of the most promising options in low-demand areas. This paper proposes a slack arrival strategy to reduce the number of rejected passengers and idle time at checkpoints resulting from uncertain travel demand. This strategy relaxes the departure time constraints of the checkpoints that do not function as transfer stations. A system cost function that includes the vehicle operation cost and customer cost is defined to measure system performance. Theoretical and simulation models are constructed to test the benefits of implementing the slack arrival strategy in flex-route transit under expected and unexpected demand levels. Experiments over a real-life flex-route transit service show that the proposed slack arrival strategy could improve the system performance by up to 40% with no additional operating cost. The results demonstrate that the proposed strategy can help transit operators provide more cost-efficient flex-route transit services in suburban and rural areas.     

The effects of federal transit subsidy policy on investment decisions: The case of San Francisco's Geary Corridor

In the United States, federal funding for public transit often accounts for a large proportion of a local agency's budget, especially for capital investments. For this reason, local governments can be expected to plan a portfolio of projects that maximize federal contributions. This study examines the financial effects of federal transit subsidy policy on local transit investment decisions. Data from a System Planning Study for the Geary Corridor in San Francisco are used as an illustration. It is found that federal transit subsidy policy provides financial incentives for local decision-makers to select capital-intensive investment options that may not be efficient or effective. While federal financial incentives are not the only factor influencing local investment decisions, some reform of the current subsidy policy may be necessary to reduce the incentive for ineffective use of public resources.     

A dynamic station strategy to improve the performance of flex-route transit services

As an innovative combination of conventional fixed-route transit and demand responsive service, flex-route transit is currently the most popular type of flexible transit services. This paper proposes a dynamic station strategy to improve the performance of flex-route transit in operating environments with uncertain travel demand. In this strategy, accepted curb-to-curb stops are labeled as temporary stations, which can be utilized by rejected requests for their pick-up and drop-off. The user cost function is defined as the performance measure of transit systems. Analytical models and simulations are constructed to test the feasibility of implementing the dynamic station strategy in flex-route transit services. The study over a real-life flex-route service indicates that the proposed dynamic station strategy could reduce the user cost by up to 30% without any additional operating cost, when an unexpectedly high travel demand surpasses the designed service capacity of deviation services.     

The theory of second best in urban mass transit: Management in the public sector as a proforma exercise

This paper focuses on four issues. The first is the case of one-sided investments in mass transit in metropolitan areas of developing countries. It is pointed out that in many cases in which the conditions for optimum investment policies (Pareto's Optimum) are not maintained, excessive investments on mass transit, including large annual operating subsidies, usually lead to substantial sub-optimizations and waste of scarce financial resources. This problem is then reviewed under the light of the “Theory of Second Best” as articulated for all investment options within Welfare Economic Theory. The second issue examined is the matter of recently discovered important diseconomies of scale of large metro transit systems in developing and developed countries, and the need to retain production of transport services within small-scale production units that are well coordinated and controlled. The third issue discussed is the problem of mismanagement of most public sector transit companies and agencies. The notion that most such systems are simply administered, not managed, is being brought up and the requirements for proper management are amplified. Finally, the case of public vs. private ownership of mass transit is being discussed with a distinction between public policies of providing mass transit services and the actual production process of these services. Provision of services represents a public responsibility that belongs to the public sector. However, production of service is a techno-economic process that requires different talents and circumstances. The paper concludes with a strong suggestion for major reorientation of urban mass transit in the metro areas of developing countries towards more efficiency and higher productivity.     

Development of multimodal performance measures for transit systems in New York State

The New York State Department of Transportation was required to certify as to the economy and efficiency of transit operators participating in the State's public transportation operating assistance program. This paper describes the efforts undertaken to meet this mandate.Discussed are past efforts to link performance measures to funding programs; reasons for modifying measures which had been used in previous efforts; and some of the problems and issues raised by the use of such criteria. The paper identifies 15 performance measures being used by New York State in its evaluations, the actual ranges encountered in the transit operations being funded through the state program, and tentative acceptable and desirable levels of those measures which the Transportation Department is using in its evaluation. The role these measures play in the state's operating assistance policy decision process is also described.     

The economic use of subsidies for urban mass transportation

The energy crisis and various urban problems stemming from auto congestion, pollution, and the cost of providing public highways have created enormous interest in revitalizing our urban mass transit systems. Currently much is being said and written regarding the efficacy of granting federal, state and/or local operating subsidies. In this article, the author reviews the transit industry's peak capacity problem, and questions the economic wisdom of providing operating subsidies, as some are now being provided, and how most will probably be administered in the near future. An alternative plan suggests the manner in which subsidies can eventually help the transit industry. The article concludes with an analysis of what research efforts are needed in many urban transit systems and how subsidies can be used to support such research.     

Optimization of Fare Structure and Service Frequency for Maximum Profitability of Transit Systems

Abstract

Providing efficient public transportation has been recognized as a potential way of alleviating congestion, improving mobility, mitigating air pollution, and reducing energy consumption. Many people use public transportation systems for their daily commute, while others use different transportation modes (e.g. cars, taxis, carpools, etc.). Inexpensive fares with good transit service encourages ridership, and the resulting revenue may be used to provide better service. Optimization of transit service frequency and its associated fare structure is desirable in order to increase revenue at reasonable transit operating expenditure. The objective of the study reported here is to maximize profit subject to service capacity constraint, while elastic demand is considered. The solution methodology is developed and applied to solve the profit maximization problem in a case study based on Newark, NJ, USA. Numerical results, including optimal solutions and sensitivity analyses, are presented. It is found that an optimal temporal headway and differential fare structure that maximizes total profit for the studied subway system can be efficiently solved.     

Exposure to noise inside transit buses in Kuwait: Measurements and passenger attitudes

Noise levels were measured, for the first time, inside 115 randomly selected transit buses, operating on 12 sample representative routes in Metropolitan Kuwait. Simultaneously with the monitoring of noise levels, the attitudes of 679 riders concerning the annoyance and long-term health impacts of noise were also surveyed. The noise and passenger attitude data were collected over 10 months (March - December 2000). The percentile distribution, equivalent noise level, traffic noise index and noise pollution levels inside four types of transit buses are presented. Riders' perceived annoyance and awareness of the long-term health impacts of noise were also determined and are discussed. The level of service and performance deficiencies of the public transit system in Kuwait, as perceived by its passengers, are also identified. A number of recommendations end the paper.     

Automatic calibration of agent-based public transit assignment path choice to count data

This work describes the calibration of a schedule-based transit assignment inside an iterative microscopic agent-based simulation. The calibration challenge implies that the behavioral rules should be modified in order to move the simulation closer to observed passenger counts. First, route choice set of agents is enriched with travel parameter utilities randomization. Secondly, the calibration interacts directly into the performance evaluation of individual daily plan of activities, so that the plan is also evaluated for its contribution to the count reproduction. In this way, appropriate plans from the calibration perspective can persist along simulation iterations. The Berlin public transport system with day-based counts is used as test scenario. The results show that the calibration approach can work with large scale scenarios, and that it is able to deal with the inter-temporal aspects implied by counts.     

Consequences of public ownership and subsidies for mass transit: Evidence from case studies and regression analysis

The trend toward public ownership, public regulation, and public subsidization of the U.S. transit industry has recently come under attack. Many argue that the result has been reduced productivity, increased costs, and very little real benefit. This article examines the impacts of subsidies and public ownership in four large transit systems that cover a range of transit system types and financing arrangements. Evidence from the case studies is compared to the results of both time-series and cross-section regression analysis of operating and financial statistics for large samples of bus systems. Although the case studies and the regressions rely on different datasets and different techniques, they support the same conclusions. Increased subsidies and public ownership have kept down fares and permitted service expansion, but have also encouraged wasteful cost escalation. Thus, transit riders unquestionably have benefited from public takeovers of transit systems and burgeoning subsidies, but not nearly as much as they would have benefited if costs had not skyrocketed at the same time.     

Policy analysis of third party electronic coupons for public transit fares

Mobile technologies are generating new business models for urban transport systems, as is evident from recent startups cropping up from the private sector. Public transport systems can make more use of mobile technologies than just for measuring system performance, improving boarding times, or for analyzing travel patterns. A new transaction model is proposed for public transport systems where travelers are allowed to pre-book their fares and trade that demand information to private firms. In this public-private partnership model, fare revenue management is outsourced to third party private firms such as big box retail or large planned events (such as sports stadiums and theme parks), who can issue electronic coupons to travelers to subsidize their fares. This e-coupon pricing model is analyzed using marginal cost theory for the transit service and shown to be quite effective for monopolistic coupon rights, particularly for demand responsive transit systems that feature high cost fares, non-commute travel purposes, and a closed access system with existing pre-booking requirements. However, oligopolistic scenarios analyzed using game theory and network economics suggest that public transport agencies need to take extreme care in planning and implementing such a policy. Otherwise, they risk pushing an equivalent tax on private firms or disrupting the urban economy and real estate values while increasing ridership.     

A cost-competitiveness analysis of charging infrastructure for electric bus operations

This study investigates the cost competitiveness of different types of charging infrastructure, including charging stations, charging lanes (via charging-while-driving technologies) and battery swapping stations, in support of an electric public transit system. To this end, we first establish mathematical models to investigate the optimal deployment of various charging facilities along the transit line and determine the optimal size of the electric bus fleet, as well as their batteries, to minimize total infrastructure and fleet costs while guaranteeing service frequency and satisfying the charging needs of the transit system. We then conduct an empirical analysis utilizing available real-world data. The results suggest that: (1) the service frequency, circulation length, and operating speed of a transit system may have a great impact on the cost competitiveness of different charging infrastructure; (2) charging lanes enabled by currently available inductive wireless charging technology are cost competitive for most of the existing bus rapid transit corridors; (3) swapping stations can yield a lower total cost than charging lanes and charging stations for transit systems with high operating speed and low service frequency; (4) charging stations are cost competitive only for transit systems with very low service frequency and short circulation; and (5) the key to making charging lanes more competitive for transit systems with low service frequency and high operating speed is to reduce their unit-length construction cost or enhance their charging power.