Exhaust nanoparticle emissions from internal combustion engines: A review

This paper reviews the particle emissions formed during the combustion process in spark ignition and diesel engine. Proposed legislation in Europe and California will impose a particle number requirement for GDI (gasoline direct injection) vehicles and will introduce the Euro 6 and LEV-III emission standards. More careful optimization for reducing particulate emission on engine hardware, fuel system, and control strategy to reduce particulate emissions will be required during cold start and warm-up phases. Because The diesel combustion inherently produces significant amounts of PM as a result of incomplete combustion around individual fuel droplets in the combustion zone, much attention has been paid to reducing particle emissions through electronic engine control, high pressure injection systems, combustion chamber design, and exhaust after-treatment technologies. In this paper, recent research and development trends to reduce the particle emissions from internal combustion engines are summarized, with a focus on PMP activity in EU, CARB and SAE papers and including both state-of-the-art light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty engines.     

Experimental investigation and comparison of nanoparticle emission characteristics in light-duty vehicles for two different fuels

In recent years, particle number emissions rather than particulate mass emissions in automotive engines have become the subject with controversial discussions. Recent results from studies of health effects imply that it is possible that particulate mass does not properly correlate with the variety of health effects attributed to engine exhaust. The concern is now focusing on nano-sized particles emitted from I. C. engines. In this study, particulate mass and particle number concentration emitted from light-duty vehicles were investigated for a better understanding of the characteristics of the engine PM from different types of fuels, such as gasoline and diesel fuel. Engine nano-particle mass and size distributions of four test vehicles were measured by a condensation particle counter system, which is recommended by the particle measurement program in Europe (PMP), at the end of a dilution tunnel along a NEDC test mode on a chassis dynamometer. We found that particle number concentrations of diesel passenger vehicles with DPF system are lower than gasoline passenger vehicles, but PM mass has some similar values. However, in diesel vehicles with DPF system, PM mass and particle number concentrations were greatly influenced by PM regeneration. Particle emissions in light-duty vehicles emitted about 90% at the ECE15 cycle in NEDC test mode, regardless of vehicle fuel type. Particle emissions at the early cold condition of engine were highly emitted in the test mode.     

甲醇汽油混合燃料的甲醛排放试验研究

对M10(甲醇占10%,90号汽油占90%)、M15两种混合燃料及汽油M0在小型内燃机上进行了不同载荷下甲醛排放试验。结果表明,M10与M15甲醇汽油混合燃料在空载和满载时尾气排放中的甲醛含量较高,半载时的甲醛含量低;在空载时,随着甲醇比例的增加,尾气中的甲醛也相应增加。     

Influence of oxygenate content on particulate matter emission in gasoline direct injection engine

The relationship between the oxygen content in gasoline and the particulate emission (particle number and weight) was investigated. In order to study the influence of the engine configuration on the particulate emission, four vehicles were tested in which the following systems were installed: Vehicle 1 was equipped with direct injection system which uses central mounted outwardly opening injectors. Vehicle 2 and 3 used direct injection with a side mounted multihole injectors and Vehicle 4 had port fuel injection system. Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) was used as the oxygen booster. The oxygen content in the gasoline was varied from 1 to 3 wt%, which corresponds with an MTBE dosage from 3.55% to 16.11%. This study used fuel that contained the same octane number with a 2% oxygen content without oxygen components, and it was used as the reference fuel in order to distinguish the effect of the oxygen content increases and the octane boosts that result from the MTBE. All vehicle tests were performed on a roller type chassis dynamometer using the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and Federal Test Procedure-75 (FTP-75) cycle. The experiment results demonstrate that the oxygen content increases in the gasoline reduced the particulate emission in vehicles with direct injection engines. An equivalent phenomenon was observed in a vehicle with a port fuel injection engine, but its absolute particle number was much smaller than that of the gasoline direct injection engine. The amount of reduction of the particle number in the start (cold) phase of the test cycle was significant compared with the later (hot) phase engine operation. However, particulates were emitted even though the engine was fully warmed up, especially when the engine was highly loaded. Other factors such as fuel economy or other exhaust emissions were not significantly affected by the oxygen content.     

烃类添加剂改善M100甲醇发动机冷起动的试验研究

针对M 100甲醇发动机在低温环境下起动困难的问题,在M 100甲醇中添加烃类添加剂,改善甲醇发动机的低温起动性能.按体积比在M 100甲醇中分别添加15%汽油、8.5%异戊烷、10%石油醚作为添加剂,采用试验的方法测量了-20℃,-10℃,0℃三种环境温度下,甲醇发动机的起动性能.结果表明:甲醇中添加15%的汽油、8.5%的异戊烷、10%的石油醚,-20℃时M 100甲醇发动机可以正常起动,起动时间小于3.5 s,在-10℃时起动时间小于2.5s,在0℃时起动时间小于1.5s;环境温度为-10℃时,增大首循环喷射脉宽有利于缩短起动时间,首循环喷射脉宽从110 m s增大到130 m s,添加上述比例添加剂后,M 100甲醇发动机的起动时间分别缩短0.2s,0.2s,0.05s.     

Operating strategy for gasoline/diesel dual-fuel premixed compression ignition in a light-duty diesel engine

Environmental problems have become a major issue for diesel engine development. Although emission aftertreatment systems such as DPFs (diesel particulate filters), LNTs (lean NOx traps) and SCR (selective catalytic reduction) have been used in diesel vehicles, the manufacturing cost increase caused by this equipment can be hard to be control. Thus, it is better for engine emissions to be reduced by improving the combustion system. A dual-fuel combustion concept is a recommended method to improve a combustion system and effectively reduce emissions. Low reactivity fuel including gasoline and natural gas, which was supplied to the intake port by the FPI (port fuel injector), improved the premixed air-fuel mixture conditions before ignition. Additionally, a small amount of high reactivity fuel, in this case diesel, was injected into the cylinder directly as an ignition source. This dual-fuel combustion promises lower levels of NOx (nitrogen oxide) and PM (particulate matter) emissions due to the elimination of local rich regions in the cylinder. However, it is challenging to control the dual-fuel combustion because the combustion stability and efficiency deteriorate due to the lack of ignition source and reactivity. Thus, it is important to establish an appropriate dual-fuel operating strategy to achieve stable, high efficiency and low emission operation. As a result of this research, a detailed operating method of dual-fuel PCI (premixed compression ignition) was introduced in detail at a low speed and low load condition by using a single cylinder diesel engine. Engine operating parameters including the gasoline ratio, a diesel injection strategy consisting of multiple injectors and timing, the EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) rate and the intake pressure were controlled to satisfy the low ISNOx (indicated specific NOx) and PM emissions levels (0.21 g/kWh and 0.1 FSN, 0.040 g/kWh, respectively) as per the EURO-6 regulation without any after-treatment systems. The results emphasized that a well-constructed dual-fuel PCI operating strategy showed low NOx and PM emissions and high GIE (gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency) with excellent combustion stability.     

喷油定时对GDI汽油机燃用含水乙醇汽油的燃烧和颗粒排放的影响

在1台2.0L直列4缸GDI汽油机上,分别燃用汽油、含水乙醇汽油E10W、E20W,保持转速和平均指示压力不变,在不同喷油定时下分析汽油、E10W、E20W的燃烧特性和颗粒物排放特性.结果 表明:随着喷油定时的推迟,缸内压力、放热率和缸内平均温度三者峰值均呈现下降趋势,且放热率和缸内平均温度峰值位置推迟.燃用含水乙醇汽...     

车用加热器降低汽油机冷起动排放的试验研究

通过液体燃油加热器对车用电喷汽油发动机冷却液进行预热,进行了机动车低温冷起动过程的排放试验研究。台架试验证明:加热器可大幅度降低发动机低温冷起动阶段的排放。经燃油加热器预热后,按欧Ⅲ标准,前两个15工况循环下的累积排放量在不经催化转化器时,HC降低了31.4%,CO下降2.8%,NOx下降59.5%。燃油加热器自身的累积排放量HC为原机的3.1%,CO为4.6%,而NOx仅为原机的1.8%。试验中还对同时利用燃油加热器排温预热起燃催化转化器进行了探索。     

Examination of nanoparticles from gasoline direct-injection (GDI) engines using transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

Gasoline direct-injection (GDI) engines have been reported to produce significantly more particulate matter (PM) mass and particulate number (PN) emissions than do port-fuel-injection (PFI) spark ignition engines. Because smallsized particles are of great concern in terms of their regulation, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to evaluate the sizes of primary and aggregate particles that were thermophoretically collected from three different GDI engines under various engine operating conditions. A low load and retarded fuel injection generally reduced the particle size. Consequently, when the fuel injection timing was delayed at low loads, primary and aggregate particles became extremely small. In particular, a number of nanoparticles were sub-23-nm particles. Careful high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) analyses provided the first evidence that these nanoparticles are solid carbon particles with clear fringe patterns and young soot (and/or highly condensed semi-volatiles) with amorphous carbon patterns. Therefore, this result suggests that the current cut-off size at 23 nm for PN regulation in Euro 6 must be further reduced to include sub-23-nm carbon nanoparticles.     

点燃式乙醇发动机的性能和排放的研究

根据乙醇燃料的理化特性对电控喷射点燃式汽油发动机进行了改进,研究了进气温度和点火正时对乙醇发动机性能和排放的影响。试验结果表明:需采用进气预热解决乙醇发动机冷起动;乙醇发动机的动力性与汽油机基本相当,比能耗比汽油机低5%以上,CO和HC排放改善30%以上。     

铈基 FB C添加剂对柴油机颗粒物组分及热重特性的影响

选取环烷酸铈溶液作为燃油催化再生添加剂（FBC）进行发动机台架试验,铈（Ce）元素按质量分数150 mg／kg的比例添加到纯柴油中,配制出 F150燃油。研究了铈基 FBC对柴油机排气烟度和颗粒组分的影响。结果表明,在标定转速25％,50％,75％和100％负荷下,燃用 F150燃油时的滤纸烟度相对于纯柴油分别降低了34．9％,44．2％,50．4％和30．2％。采用X‐射线能量色谱仪（EDS ）对F150燃油颗粒物样品进行元素分析,Ce元素在颗粒物中的质量分数为1．23％。采用气相色谱质谱（GC‐M S ）联用技术研究了铈基FBC对颗粒物中可溶性有机组分（SOF）的影响,同时运用热重分析法（TGA）研究铈基FBC添加剂对颗粒物中SOF含量以及炭烟氧化特性的影响。与纯柴油相比,F150颗粒物的SOF组分中各类烷烃和多环芳香烃的质量分数分别减小至40．2％和1．73％,有机酸酯的质量分数增大至51．6％。在热重试验中,F150颗粒物样品中SOF所占比重相对于柴油增加4．7％;F150燃油燃烧炭烟样品的起始燃烧温度降低,其燃烧炭烟峰值失重率所对应的温度降低。     

Exhaust emissions and its control methods in compression ignition engines: A review

Extensive usage of automobiles has certain disadvantages and one of them is its negative effect on environment. Carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NO_x), sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and particulate matter (PM) come out as harmful products during incomplete combustion from internal combustion (IC) engines. As these substances affect human health, regulatory bodies impose increasingly stringent restrictions on the level of emissions coming out from IC engines. This trend suggests the urgent need for the investigation of all aspects relevant to emissions. It is required to modify existing engine technologies and to develop a better after-treatment system to achieve the upcoming emission norms. Diesel engines are generally preferred over gasoline engines due to their undisputed benefit of fuel economy and higher torque output. However, diesel engines produce higher emissions, particularly NO_x and PM. Aftertreatment systems are costly and occupy more space, hence, in-cylinder solutions are preferred in reducing emissions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology has been utilized previously to reduce NO_x. Though it is quite successful for small engines, problem persists with large bore engines and with high rate of EGR. EGR helps in reducing NO_x, but increases particulate emissions and fuel consumption. Many in-cylinder solutions such as lower compression ratios, modified injection characteristics, improved air intake system etc. are required along with EGR to accomplish the future emission norms. Modern combustion techniques such as low temperature combustion (LTC), homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) etc. would be helpful for reducing the exhaust emissions and improving the engine performance. However, controlling of autoignition timing and achieving wider operating range are the major challenges with these techniques. A comprehensive review of diesel engine performance and emission characteristics is given in this paper.     

冷却液温度为边界条件的柴油机起动试验研究

为了研究冷却液温度对柴油机起动过程初期燃烧不稳定性及排放的影响规律,在一台单缸直喷式柴油机上,利用缸压和单循环采样测试系统对柴油机起动初期单个工作循环的燃烧和排放进行了试验研究。结果表明:冷却液温度是影响柴油机起动过程不稳定的重要因素之一。较低的冷却液温度导致柴油机起动初期燃烧不稳定性增加,失火和不完全燃烧循环较多,从而导致HC排放升高,而且冷却液温度低造成的滞后燃烧会产生较高的CO排放。冷却液温度升高后,失火循环消除,同时着火延迟期明显缩短,最高燃烧压力升高,HC和CO排放显著降低,NOx排放升高,表明燃烧状况改善。     

机动车PM2．5排放特性

为了获得典型机动车PM2．5排放特性,文章利用符合PMP规程的MEXA一1000SPCS时不同技术类型的机动车进行了PM2．5数量排放研究,并对PM2．5排放较高的两类车型（GDI和国Ⅳ柴油车）进行了冷热试验对比。试验结果表明：不同技术类型机动车PM2．5排放量级差异明显,国V柴油车〈MPI汽油车〈GDI汽油车〈国Ⅳ柴油车;GDI汽油车PM2．5排放受温度影响要大于受负荷的影响;国Ⅳ柴油车型PM2．5排放受车辆负荷的影响要大于受温度的影响;DPF技术能够有效降低PM2．5排放;无论何种车型,瞬态加速工况都会造成PM2．5排放急剧增高。     

基于冷却液温度的内燃机能量流试验研究

内燃机能量流试验是评估不同控制策略下内燃机能耗和指明其改善方向的重要方法。通过试验对1台涡轮增压缸内直喷汽油机进行了基于冷却液温度的能量平衡分析,基于热力学定律,将能量平衡项分为有效功、冷却液损失、排气损失和通过辐射传热产生的未计入热损失。结果表明:小负荷时,随着冷却液温度的升高,燃油消耗率略有下降,NO_x排放量增加;全工况下,HC排放量随着冷却液温度的升高而减少,CO和CO_2排放量变化不大;有效功占比和排气损失占比随负荷的增大而增大,几乎不受冷却液温度的影响;冷却液损失占比随冷却液温度的升高而减小。     

Morphology and oxidation kinetics of CI engine’s biodiesel particulate matters on cordierite Diesel Particulate Filters using TGA

The impact of small compression ignition (CI) engine operation conditions and fuel properties on diesel and biodiesel particulate matters (PMs) quantity using opacity smoke meter is investigated. The biodiesel engine’s PMs are around a half of diesel engine PMs under the same engine operation conditions. Morphology of both engine’s PMs are also studied using a Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and image processing method. The average primary nanoparticle sizes of diesel and biodiesel engine’s PMs are approximately 34 nm and 32 nm, respectively. The result shows that engine operation condition and fuel property are strongly impact on the quantity and size distribution of primary nanoparticles emission. PM oxidation kinetics on conventional cordierite Diesel Particulate Filters (DPFs) powders by Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) is also successfully studied. The calculated apparent activation energies of biodiesel engine’s PM oxidation on conventional cordierite DPFs powders are lower than that of diesel engine’s PM and carbon black because of unburned oxygenated molecule. The calculated apparent activation energy of biodiesel engine’s PM and diesel engine’s PM oxidize on conventional cordierite DPFs powders with pure air are in the range of 109 ~ 131 kJ/mole and 117 ~ 130 kJ/mole, respectively. It might be expected that smaller primary nanoparticle size of biodiesel engine’s PMs and bio-oxygenate unburned hydrocarbon can promote more PM oxidation rate during vehicle’s DPF regeneration process.     

Review on characterization of nano-particle emissions and PM morphology from internal combustion engines: Part 1

This paper is review of the characterization of exhaust particles from state-of-the-art internal combustion engines. We primarily focus on identifying the physical and chemical properties of nano-particles, i.e., the concentration, size distribution, and particulate matter (PM) morphology. Stringent emissions regulations of the Euro 6 and the LEV III require a substantial reduction in the PM emissions from vehicles, and improvements in human health effects. Advances in powertrains with sophisticated engine control strategies and engine after-treatment technologies have significantly improved PM emission levels, motivating the development of new particle measurement instruments and chemical analysis procedures. In this paper, recent research trends are reviewed for physical and chemical PM characterization methods for gasoline and diesel fueled engines under various vehicle certification cycles and real-world driving conditions. The effects of engine technologies, fuels, and engine lubricant oils on exhaust PM morphology and compositions are also discussed.     

Reduction of emissions with propane addition to a diesel engine

Recent studies on dual-fuel combustion in compression-ignition (CI) engines, also known as diesel engines, fall into two categories. In the first category are studies focused on the addition of small amounts of gaseous fuel to CI engines. In these studies, gaseous fuel is regarded as a secondary fuel and diesel fuel is regarded as the main fuel for combustion. The objectives of these studies typically involve reducing particulate matter (PM) emissions by using gaseous fuel as a partial substitution for diesel fuel. However, the addition of gaseous fuel raises the combustion temperature, which increases emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO_x). In the second category are studies focused on reactivity-controlled compression-ignition (RCCI) combustion. RCCI combustion can be implemented by early diesel injection with a large amount of low-reactivity fuel such as gasoline or gaseous fuel. Although RCCI combustion promises lower NO_x and PM emissions and higher thermal efficiency than conventional diesel combustion, it requires a higher intake pressure (usually more than 1.7 bars) to maintain a lean fuel mixture. Therefore, in this study, practical applications of dual-fuel combustion with a low air-fuel ratio (AFR), which implies a low intake pressure, were systemically evaluated using propane in a diesel engine. The characteristics of dualfuel combustion for high and low AFRs were first evaluated. The proportion of propane used for four different operating conditions was then increased to decrease emissions and to identify the optimal condition for dual-fuel combustion. Although the four operating conditions differ, the AFR was maintained at 20 (? approximately equal to 0.72) and the 50% mass fraction burned (MFB 50) was also fixed. The results show that dual-fuel combustion can reduce NO_x and PM emissions in comparison to conventional diesel combustion.     

纳米燃油添加剂对柴油机颗粒物排放特性的影响

在186FA柴油机上对质量分数为50mg/kg和100mg/kg的CeO2或Co3O4纳米颗粒-柴油混合燃料进行颗粒物排放特性台架试验,采用扫描电镜和热重分析仪对采集到的颗粒物样品进行微观结构形貌及热重特性分析。结果表明:纳米CeO2和Co3O4颗粒均可改善柴油机颗粒物排放,与0号柴油相比,混合燃料颗粒物比排放量下降16.4%~35.9%;混合燃料颗粒物排放的粒径分布仍呈单峰分布的特点,峰值均在0.56~1.0μm区间内,微观形态下的粒径和孔隙率明显变小,团聚程度提高;混合燃料燃烧过程中颗粒物发生氧化反应的起燃温度、失重率峰值温度及燃尽温度均有所降低,最大失重率明显增加。     

车用汽油机分层稀燃及其排放控制技术的分析

就车用汽油机分层稀薄燃烧系统及其排放控制技术问题,重点分析和介绍了包括轴向分层、滚流分层和GDI等各种发动机稀燃系统及其排放控制的新进展,为车用汽油机经济性和排放等性能的改善提供了方向。