Capacity Building for Integrated Coastal Management in Asia-Pacific: The Case for Case Studies

Development of awareness and capacity is a central component to the delivery of ICM and spans from local communities to national-level politicians. Education and training activities associated with ICM must be extremely varied to match both the existing capacity and role that the stakeholders play within the process of ICM. Consequently, there cannot be considered any effective “generic” ICM training; training must be tailored to match the requirements of target groups. The transfer and uptake of good-practice thus becomes an important aspect of quality enhancement in ICM capacity development. Six case studies from the Asia-Pacific region are presented that show diverse and innovative examples of good practice. A comparative analysis of these case studies is carried out in terms of institutional level of impact. In addition a generic systems-based evaluation framework is used to determine the extent to which the training impacts upon ICM implementation indicators. It is concluded that the exchange, transfer, and translation to local conditions of appropriate good practice in ICM capacity development can be an important element in enhancing the impact of ICM programs on the coastal environments and societies. Furthermore, there appears to be a positive link between the involvement of national/state/regional stakeholders in capacity-building initiatives and impacting a wider variety of indicators of ICM delivery.     

Facts,Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe

Nearly 40 years on since its first tentative steps in North America, this article considers whether Integrated Zone Coastal Management (ICZM) in Europe has grown to maturity as a form of governance. The article summarizes the findings of recent research concerning the levels of implementation of coastal management in Europe, with particular reference to the UK experience. A research framework is used to identify the different motivations behind the social actor groups involved in coastal management. The application of this framework reveals four major findings about gaps in implementation: (1) the complexity of responsibilities at the coast continues to prevent agencies from taking a “joined-up” approach; (2) a policy vacuum is constraining implementation from national to local scales; (3) informational obstacles are significant in preventing co-ordination between science and policymakers, and between different sectors; (4) a democratic deficit is preventing implementation in the working practices of coastal stakeholders, with little opportunity in decision making for public comment or local accountability, especially offshore. The article also explores different conceptualizations of the role of coastal management and planning held across Europe, providing an analysis using the Strategic Management literature and the experience of the EU Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (1996–1999). Recent arrangements, with the availability of priming funds from the European Commission and emphasis on “pilot” and “demonstration” methods, have tended to encourage a project-based approach to ICZM that may fail to realize long-term objectives. The article seeks to present an analysis of the behaviors of scientists, academics, policymakers, and practitioners, and will be of interest to all those seeking to establish ICZM within the wider system of governance, as supported by the Commission of the European Community (2000) Communication on ICZM (COM 547). Some technical solutions are also offered from the UK experience that will be of use to coastal project officers working at national and regional levels.     

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Law in the European Union

The achievement of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) in the European Union inevitably raises questions of law. Law has the potential to assist ICZM, but it also has the capacity to impede it. The European Demonstration Programme on ICZM has revealed considerable diversity within the 13 national legal systems governing the European Union (EU) coastal zone, but it has also shown a similarity of legal problems and has identified some examples of good practice. There are already provisions of European Community (EC) and international law that exert a unifying influence on aspects of coastal management in Europe. However the constitutional powers of the EU are limited by the legal principles of subsidiarity and proportionality, and any ICZM initiative must be consistent with these. The potential mechanisms available include a legally binding EC directive, but the European Com mission has instead preferred a nonbinding recommendation and strategic guidance. Each approach offers some practical advantages and disadvantages, but the success of any method will ultimately depend upon political will.     

Governing Coastal Spaces: The Case of Disappearing Science in Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Scientific knowledge is central to “good” governance of coastal spaces: developing methods through which the complexities of the coastal zone can be understood by stakeholders to improve the sustainable management of coastal systems. Enhancing our knowledge of the range of processes that shape coastal spaces and define the total behavioural environment of the system remains a primary challenge for the coastal research community. However, this article raises the argument that current approaches to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)—the preferred governing framework for the coastal environment, do not give sufficient emphasis to this fundamental need. Improving the basic scientific knowledge that underpins policymaking at the coast is argued to be urgently needed. Issues such as that of developing a communality of the purpose and approach between stakeholders within the coastal zone (through conflict resolution and access to information, for example) seem to claim the rights of the integrated management research agenda. However, the very nature of ICZM as “worthwhile coastal management” requires that integrated management represents more than a governing framework. Successful integration in coastal management must also be underpinned by knowledge of the integrated behavior of the system. Science has an increasingly marginalized position within ICZM and as a result geographers, contributing knowledge of the patterns and processes of the human and environmental landscapes, are also becoming a disappearing breed in integrated coastal management.     

Interagency Collaboration for Integrated Coastal Zone Management: A Bangladesh Case Study

Protection, conservation, and development of coastal resources of Bangladesh are being pursued by a number of agencies on narrowly defined subject-matter specialization like agriculture and fisheries. Coastal resources, however, have competitive uses and need to be approached holistically. A Program Development Office set up to start the preparatory work for an ICZM program commissioned an institutional review of 15 agencies most intimately connected with activities in the coastal area to assess their institutional capacity to take part in an ICZM program. The actual performance of one of the top-ranked organizations under review was further evaluated by drawing upon case materials from five completed multisector projects in which it was the lead agency. The case study revealed that institutional capacity was a necessary but not a sufficient condition for successful joint execution of multisector programs. Organizations tend to cooperate in a multisector program only when they are given full control over the management of their own components. Any arrangements short of that will not yield the desired result. An integrated approach needs to be formalized in a manner that allows each agency to maintain its independent status while at the same time allowing it to carry out its activities within a commonly agreed framework. This model contains the elements of an institutional design for carrying out an integrated coastal zone management program in Bangladesh.     

The Development of a Visualization Methodology for Integrated Coastal Management

Coastal management information is frequently communicated to stakeholders and the public through complicated management documents and engineering plans. With the recognition that public involvement in coastal decision-making processes should be widened have come calls to develop new techniques to communicate complicated coastal information. Using Virtual Reality Geographical Information Systems and visualization packages, such information may be presented using formats more suitable for public consultation and information dissemination exercises than those currently employed. Using a site on the north Norfolk coast of England, an integrated Geographical Information Systems based methodology is presented that allows the visualization of proposed coastal management interventions. Visualizations have been produced that can be published in traditional paper-based management documents, or electronically. The different visualizations are compared and the technical issues surrounding their use discussed. It is argued that the methodology has clear advantages over traditional communication methods, although further research is necessary to determine how it may be practically employed by coastal managers.     

Information Required for Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Conclusions from the European Demonstration Programme

This article presents the results of the Thematic Study on "the role of information in delivering Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Europe." It provides a definition of information and discusses the need for, and nature of, information as it influences and supports ICZM. The conclusions from the study are summarized, highlighting the importance of viewing information provision as part of the process of developing effective ICZM. The results of InfoCoast '99, a symposium held in February 1999 on knowledge and information for coastal management, are discussed and some of the practical steps that have and can be taken to meet the information need for ICZM in Europe are considered.     

Overcoming Governance and Institutional Barriers to Integrated Coastal Zone,Marine Protected Area,and Tourism Management in Sri Lanka

One of the major barriers to addressing complex social–ecological issues through integrated coastal management (ICM) is a lack of intergovernmental coordination and cooperation (horizontal and vertical fragmentation). This article describes an effort to overcome the barriers to ICM in Sri Lanka by fostering intergovernmental collaboration and initiating adaptive governance to restore one town, Hikkaduwa, and its associated marine protected area (MPA) and coastal zone habitats. Administrators from 12 national and local governmental agencies that are responsible for aspects of coastal management in the town of Hikkaduwa participated in a series of formal and informal workshops and a week-long tour of ICM projects in the Philippines. Outcomes demonstrate that these informal and formal meetings, workshops, and travel experiences fostered trust, social capital, and attitudinal organizational commitment (AOC). The experiences motivated members to overcome vertical and horizontal governance fragmentation through the formation of an independent intergovernmental committee for the restoration of Hikkaduwa into a sustainable and resilient community. ICM activities undertaken by the newly formed organization suggest that internal leadership capacity, effective local–national partnerships, explicitly linked ecological–economic projects, and long-term commitment are necessary conditions for success. Overall, attainment of sustainability and resilience through successful ICM should be thought of as a journey and not a destination.     

Building Philippine Local Government Capacity for Coastal Resource Management

The responsibility for managing coral reefs and other coastal resources was largely devolved to coastal municipalities and cities in the Philippines in 1991 with the passage of the Local Government Code. Devolution of powers and responsibilities to local government has paved the way for mainstreaming coastal resource management at the local level. However, the capacity to carry out this mandate has only recently begun to mature as municipalities and cities gain an increased awareness of the importance of coastal resources to communities and economic development. Approaches and strategies to increase local government capacity for coastal resource management are described based on the experiences of the Coastal Resource Management Project of the United States Agency for International Development. Qualitative and quantitative data are used to illustrate the possible impact of these capacity building efforts and to describe the current capacity of local government to undertake coastal resource management. After five years of project implementation, coastal municipalities have increased technical capacity, have allotted financial resources, and have achieved key performance benchmarks in the delivery of coastal resource management as a basic service.     

Challenges and Myths in Norwegian Coastal Zone Management

Abstract

This paper is written in response to a recent publication (Walker, 1973) which questions both the biological basis for wetlands preservation and the usefulnesss of scientific participation in the formulation of management policies. Our major points are that: (1) considerable evidence exists linking wetlands primary production to aquatic secondary production, (2) all available information suggests that large‐scale wetlands destruction results in lowered production of estuarine organisms of interest to man, (3) more than economics needs to be considered in attempts to analyze the procedures by which the wetlands controversy is to be resolved, and (4) uncertainty about the applicability of scientific findings to a particular problem situation does not destroy the usefulness of those findings in reaching a solution to a public controversy.     

Role and Use of Technologies in Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Lessons from the European Demonstration Programme

Technologies are considered tools to increase the number of "available options" and to "enlarge the freedom of action" of society to achieve specific objectives. One such objective is sustainable development of the coastal zones. One way to achieve this is via integrated coastal zone management (ICZM): the integration of otherwise sectoral management activities. ICZM is not yet a widespread practice. Even in situations where integrated management is attempted, the role of technologies that might be deployed on the coastal zone to satisfy other societal needs or to provide a solution to specific problem, is not always adequately considered. True integration requires an understanding of how a technology is influenced by or impacts the surrounding natural, economic, and social environment. The present article describes an analysis of the role and use of technologies in the European Union Demonstration Programme on ICZM.     

Spatial Information Infrastructure for Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management in Canada

Access to current, comprehensive, and reliable spatial information is necessary for informed decision making in integrated coastal and ocean management. This need is being met through development of a marine spatial information infrastructure that encompasses both technological and institutional responses. This article traces Canada's experience in developing a marine spatial information infrastructure over the last 30 years starting with the compilation of coastal atlases, through the development of geographic information systems, to remote data acquisition instruments and Web mapping portals. Because of the plethora of initiatives, it has been essential to be selected and limit the number and choice of examples. The institutional response has lagged behind that of technological innovation and hinges on understanding users’ needs and decision support drivers, sustainability of institutional and individual champions, and, above all, cooperation and collaboration among the broad community of practice.     

Learning Frontiers in the Practice of Integrated Coastal Management

Since the Rio conference in 1992 investments in integrated coastal management (ICM) have increased dramatically. National and subnational governments have undertaken many initiatives to protect and develop coastal areas. Extensive field experience has advanced understanding of the operational attributes of ICM. This article reviews the principles and operational attributes of ICM that have become well accepted, particularly from the perspective of international ICM donors and professionals. A common understanding of the fundamentals of ICM provides a base from which targeted and systematic study and assessment of ICM can be conducted. Several thematic areas are suggested where there are currently important needs and opportunities for collective study and learning in ICM. The important role of donors is emphasized in supporting collaborative learning initiatives that advance understanding of ICM, and improve and expand the practice.     

Criteria for Evaluating the Design of Implementation Models for Integrated Coastal Management

Despite the emphasis placed on the contextual nature of integrated coastal management (ICM) implementation in the literature, many uniformities are encountered in ICM implementation worldwide. In this article the tangled threads of ICM practice are unravelled and a theoretically founded set of criteria for evaluating the design of ICM implementation models is provided. First, paradigms in integrated environmental management (IEM) implementation, the broader domain within which ICM practice is nested, are characterized in terms of their key concepts. Next, the paradigms are used as a mechanism to distill uniformities in ICM practice as reported in review articles. Finally a set of fourteen building blocks against which the scientific credibility of contextual, country-specific ICM implementation models can be validated, is generated by translating the theory-based characterization into evaluation criteria readily accessible to practitioners.     

Integrated Coastal Management in the Philippines: Testing New Paradigms

With fisheries declining, coral reefs battered, mangrove forests under threat, pollution levels rising, and coastal communities experiencing increased poverty, the Philippines faces severe challenges in managing its coastal resources. Coastal management efforts began in the Philippines more than 20 years ago through various community-based projects. Now, integrated coastal management is expanding in the country and holds the potential to reverse the trends. This article analyzes the situation in relation to new approaches for coastal management being undertaken through the Coastal Resource Management Project supported by the United States Agency for International Development implemented by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources. This project, drawing on the lessons generated by past and ongoing coastal management initiatives, is emphasizing integrated approaches to management over narrowly focused fisheries management and habitat protection efforts. It highlights the increasingly important role of local governments and the changing roles of national government to effectively support integrated coastal management. Multisectoral collaboration is explained as standard procedure to achieve outcomes that are broad based and sustainable. Local and national level activities are contrasted and shown as essential complements in building institutionalization of resources management within all levels of government. A practical result framework is explained for measuring relative success at the local government level of implementing best practices for coastal management. Finally, lessons being learned related to collaboration, level of focus, education, and communication; who is responsible; and expansion of the project are highlighted.     

Integrated Coastal Management in Philippine Local Governance: Evolution and Benefits

In 1991 the Philippine government shifted many coastal management responsibilities to local governments and fostered increased local participation in the management of coastal resources. In their delivery of integrated coastal management (ICM) as a basic service, many local governments have achieved increasing public awareness of coastal resource management (CRM) issues. Continuing challenges are financial sustainability, inadequate capacities, weak law enforcement, and lack of integrated and collaborative efforts. To address these challenges, a CRM certification system was developed to improve strategies and promote incentives for local governments to support ICM. This system is being applied by an increasing number of local governments to guide the development and implementation of ICM in their jurisdiction. The CRM benchmarks required for a local government to achieve the first level of certification are: budget allocated, CRM related organizations formed and active, CRM plan developed and adopted, shoreline management initiated and two or more best practices implemented. Implementation is providing tangible benefits to communities through enhanced fisheries production associated with MPAs, revenues from user fees and enhanced community pride through learning exchanges and involvement in decisions, among others.     

Catalyzing Coastal Management in Kenya and Zanzibar: Building Capacity and Commitment

Site-based projects were initiated in Chawka Bay-Paje, Zanzibar, and Nyali-Bamburi-Shanzu, Kenya, to demonstrate the benefits of an integrated coastal management (ICM) approach for addressing coastal issues such as tourism development and enhancement of resource-dependent village economies in eastern Africa. A two-year, multidonor project used three primary strategies to make rapid, but sustainable, progress toward ICM. These included using interagency government teams for ICM planning, adopting an internationally recognized framework for ICM as a project ''road map,'' and explicitly incorporating capacity-building strategies into all aspects of the project. Within two years, integrated ICM action strategies, prepared through participatory processes, were being implemented at both sites, and both teams were working to expand the scale and scope of ICM in their nation. More importantly, the project helped create committed, capable, interagency groups that continue to work together to address urgent ICM issues.     

Decentralized Coastal Zone Management in Malaysia and Indonesia: A Comparative Perspective 1

Transferring decision-making process from central to local government and enhancing the role of local communities in managing coastal zones is an increasing commitment by governments in Southeast Asia. This article analyzes decentralized coastal zone management in two neighboring countries, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Federal system in Malaysia is argued to be able to influence more decentralized coastal zone management and to promote community-based management approaches. Meanwhile, the large diversity of coastal resources and communities combined with a still as yet tested decentralization policy in Indonesia is argued to bring more challenges in implementing the decentralization and community-based approaches in coastal zones. The lessons learned in this study provide insight in how far decentralized coastal zone management has taken place in Malaysia and Indonesia. The significant differences in the pattern of coastal zone management in these two countries are discussed in detail. This study recognizes that co-management and community-based approaches can be appropriate in dealing with coastal zone management. This comparative perspective is important to the development of a bigger picture of sustainable coastal zone management processes and cross-regional knowledge-sharing in Southeast Asia.     

The Role of Universities in Supporting Integrated Coastal Management in the United Kingdom

Integrated coastal management has been seen as the way to deal with the challenges currently facing managers of our coastal zones. In the tropics, these areas are typified with resources such as coral reefs and mangroves that are able to support a variety of activities. Integrated coastal management takes a multi-disciplinary approach that involves the integration of the different institutions and stakeholder groups in the coastal zone. A survey of tropical coastal locations revealed that fully implemented integrated coastal management is limited with programs apparently failing at the implementation stage. These coastal zones share a number of common challenges exacerbated by poverty and conflicts between the coastal activities. Conflict management needs to be incorporated into the management process that pays particular attention to the overextraction of resources and destructive resource use.