基于优化高斯过程回归算法的锂离子电池可用容量估算

为了解决应用数据驱动算法估算锂离子电池可用容量时存在的电池老化特征提取不准确、可用容量衰退趋势跟踪精度低及模型要求训练数据量大等问题,提出一种基于优化高斯过程回归算法的锂离子电池可用容量估算方法,实现锂离子电池强非线性全衰退过程可用容量精确估算。首先,提取电池表面平均温度、容量增量曲线峰值及峰值对应电压作为表征电池老化状态的健康因子,通过灰色关联度分析法和熵权值法对所选健康因子进行合理性评估;然后,用2个单一核函数构造高斯过程回归算法复合核函数,并利用鲸鱼优化算法完成复合核函数的参数寻优,基于优化后的高斯过程回归模型实现锂离子电池可用容量估算;最后,通过对比不同核参数寻优算法,证明鲸鱼优化算法在参数寻优方面的先进性,并通过与传统的高斯过程回归、支持向量机、径向基神经网络等机器学习算法进行可用容量估算对比,证明模型的有效性。研究结果表明:基于复合核函数和鲸鱼优化算法参数寻优可以有效改善高斯过程回归模型性能,所建立的优化高斯过程回归模型能够基于较少训练数据实现电池容量的精确估算,并能够有效追踪锂离子电池非线性长周期衰退趋势;对不同电池数据也具备较好的自适应能力,可用容量估算最大误差低于1.56%。     

Implementation of discharging/charging current sensorless state-of-charge estimator reflecting cell-to-cell variations in lithium-ion series battery packs

This paper offers novel insights to the design and implementation of an innovative state-of-charge (SOC) estimator for the lithium-ion (Li-Ion) series battery pack. The most interesting feature of this approach is that it can utilize information from each filtered terminal voltage of the Li-Ion cells connected in series for SOC estimation of the battery pack. Without actual sensing each discharging/charging current (DCC) applied to the Li-Ion cells, it is possible to extract each DCC estimation from the corresponding filtered terminal voltages with an equivalent electrical circuit model (EECM) identification of all Li-Ion cells in the battery pack. There are two advantages to SOC estimation of the battery pack with this approach. First, the proposal can be implemented simply and effectively, reducing the computational steps required for SOC estimation. By reducing computational steps, the proposal is expected to be more cost-effective. Second, the approach guarantees an improved SOC performance, even if the battery pack results in inevitable cell-to-cell variation among Li-Ion cells. Accordingly, there are fewer differences to previously estimated DCCs among Li-Ion cells. Specifically, all values from the estimated DCCs are properly compensated for by simultaneous parameter modification according to each cell’s electrochemical characteristics. Experimental results clearly demonstrate that our DCC sensorless SOC estimator provides robust SOC performance for the battery pack. This approach considered an experimental battery pack (12S1P) connected in series using 2.6 Ah LiCoO2 cells produced by Samsung SDI.     

电动汽车用NiMH电池建模及基于状态空间的SOC预测方法

电动汽车的电池管理系统需要精确、可靠的电池荷电状态(SOC)预测器。针对氢镍(NiMH)电池，提出了一种集总参数等效电路模型，介绍了通过实验获得电池参数的方法。该模型考虑了温度对电池参数的影响，能反映电池充放电的动态过程。文中用状态空间描述了R—C电池模型，在此基础上建立了一种新的基于状态空间的SOC递推算法，并对电池的充放电过程进行了仿真计算。分析表明，提出的SOC估计方法同样可用于其它类型的动力电池。     

Electrochemical battery model and its parameter estimator for use in a battery management system of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

This paper reports the development of a battery model and its parameter estimator that are readily applicable to automotive battery management systems (BMSs). Due to the parameter estimator, the battery model can maintain reliability over the wider and longer use of the battery. To this end, the electrochemical model is used, which can reflect the aging-induced physicochemical changes in the battery to the aging-relevant parameters within the model. To update the effective kinetic and transport parameters using a computationally light BMS, the parameter estimator is built based on a covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMA-ES) that can function without the need for complex Jacobian matrix calculations. The existing CMA-ES implementation is modified primarily by region-based memory management such that it satisfies the memory constraints of the BMS. Among the several aging-relevant parameters, only the liquid-phase diffusivity of Li-ion is chosen to be estimated. This also facilitates integrating the parameter estimator into the BMS because a smaller number of parameter estimates yields the fewer number of iterations, thus, the greater computational efficiency of the parameter estimator. Consequently, the BMS-integrated parameter estimator enables the voltage to be predicted and the capacity retention to be estimated within 1 % error throughout the battery life-time.     

基于蚁狮算法的UKF车辆状态参数估计器

为了准确获取分布式驱动电动汽车状态参数信息,满足车辆稳定性控制系统的需求,提出一种基于蚁狮算法的无迹卡尔曼滤波状态参数估计器。针对无迹卡尔曼滤波（UKF）过程中噪声协方差矩阵的不确定性,采用蚁狮优化算法（ALO）对其进行寻优,并引入奇异值分解（SVD）的方法来维持噪声协方差矩阵的正定性,此外,基于指数加权最小二乘法对车辆侧偏刚度进行辨识并将其作为状态参数估计器输入。基于MATLAB/Simulink和CarSim联合仿真平台,建立分布式驱动电动汽车参数估计模型,分别进行双移线工况和正弦迟滞工况仿真,并基于A&D5435快速原型开发平台进行双移线工况实车试验。仿真与试验结果表明：相比于SVDUKF算法估计结果,双移线仿真工况下,基于ALO-SVDUKF算法估计得到的质心侧偏角和横摆角速度的均方根误差分别降低了55.7%、30.7%,正弦迟滞仿真工况下,均方根误差分别降低了58.1%、85.1%,且在车辆处于极限失稳状态时仍能维持较好的估计效果;双移线试验工况下,横摆角速度的估计值与实际测量值之间的均方根误差仅为0.938 4（°）·s^-1;提出的基于ALO-SVDUKF算法的分布式驱动电动汽车状态参数估计器能够有效提高质心侧偏角和横摆角速度的估计精度,可为车辆稳定性控制提供精确的状态信息。     

Estimation of longitudinal speed robust to road conditions for ground vehicles

This article seeks to develop a longitudinal vehicle velocity estimator robust to road conditions by employing a tyre model at each corner. Combining the lumped LuGre tyre model and the vehicle kinematics, the tyres internal deflection state is used to gain an accurate estimation. Conventional kinematic-based velocity estimators use acceleration measurements, without correction with the tyre forces. However, this results in inaccurate velocity estimation because of sensor uncertainties which should be handled with another measurement such as tyre forces that depend on unknown road friction. The new Kalman-based observer in this paper addresses this issue by considering tyre nonlinearities with a minimum number of required tyre parameters and the road condition as uncertainty. Longitudinal forces obtained by the unscented Kalman filter on the wheel dynamics is employed as an observation for the Kalman-based velocity estimator at each corner. The stability of the proposed time-varying estimator is investigated and its performance is examined experimentally in several tests and on different road surface frictions. Road experiments and simulation results show the accuracy and robustness of the proposed approach in estimating longitudinal speed for ground vehicles.     

Robust estimation of maximum tire-road friction coefficient considering road surface irregularity

An accurate estimation of the maximum tire-road friction coefficient may provide higher performance in a vehicle active safety control system. Unfortunately, real-time tire-road friction coefficient estimation is costly and necessitates additional sensors that must be installed and maintained at all times. This paper proposes an advanced longitudinal tire-road friction coefficient estimation method that is capable of considering irregular road surfaces. The proposed algorithm uses a stiffness based estimation method, however, unlike previous studies, improvements were made by suggesting a third order model to solve problems related to nonlinear mu-slip curve. To attain the tire-road friction coefficient, real-time normalized force is obtained from the force estimator as exerted from the tire in the low slip region using the recursive least squares method. The decisive aspect of using the suggested algorithm lies in its low cost and versatility. It can be used under irregular road conditions due to its capability of easily obtaining wheel speed and acceleration values from production cars. The newly improved algorithm has been verified to computer simulations as well as compact size cars on dry asphalt conditions.     

基于容量修正的安时积分SOC估算方法研究

针对传统安时积分SOC估算法将电池容量视为定值而带来的误差,提出了带容量修正的安时积分法,它通过开路电压法确定电池组SOC初始值,再由电池组充放电试验得到不同倍率、库伦效率、温度等对电池容量的修正因子。仿真与试验结果表明,经改进的安时积分法可有效消除各种误差,估算结果精度较高,可用于SOC的实时估算或作为评价其它SOC估算策略的基准。     

基于剩余充电电量的锂离子电池组容量快速估计方法

针对传统锂离子电池组容量确定方法存在的效率低、能耗高且只能离线应用等问题,提出一种基于电池剩余充电电量的锂离子电池组容量快速估计方法。首先,基于充电电压曲线一致性原理,以电池组内率先充电至充电截止电压的电池单体电压曲线为基准,通过电压曲线的平移缩放与线性插值计算出各单体电池的剩余充电电量与剩余充电时间,从而实现各单体电池的荷电状态(State of Charge, SOC)在线估计,在此基础上实现电池组容量的快速估计。其次,在电池单体模型的基础上建立电池组的仿真模型,并在全SOC区域上对模型参数进行分段辨识。通过所建立的仿真模型得到电池组的充放电曲线,并对电池组容量进行估计。最后,对4个单体串联而成的电池组进行充电试验。研究结果表明:仿真容量与估计容量误差为1.2%以内,验证了所提出的容量快速估计算法的有效性;利用所提方法估计出电池组容量与试验得到的电池组容量的误差为2.61%;该方法根据电池充电曲线的平移与缩放即可在线估计出电池组容量,可应用于新电池组容量的在线快速估计,能在保证3%估计误差的基础上将检测效率提高到传统方法的2倍以上。     

Dual extended Kalman filter for vehicle state and parameter estimation

The article demonstrates the implementation of a model-based vehicle estimator, which can be used for combined estimation of vehicle states and parameters. The estimator is realised using the dual extended Kalman filter (DEKF) technique, which makes use of two Kalman filters running in parallel, thus 'splitting' the state and parameter estimation problems. Note that the two problems cannot be entirely separated due to their inherent interdependencies. This technique provides several advantages, such as the possibility to switch off the parameter estimator, once a sufficiently good set of estimates has been obtained. The estimator is based on a four-wheel vehicle model with four degrees of freedom, which accommodates the dominant modes only, and is designed to make use of several interchangeable tyre models. The paper demonstrates the appropriateness of the DEKF. Results to date indicate that this is an effective approach, which is considered to be of potential benefit to the automotive industry.     

A hybrid model based method for bus travel time estimation

Providing accurate information about bus arrival time to passengers can make the public transport system more attractive. Such information helps the passengers by reducing the uncertainty on waiting time and the associated frustrations. However, accurate estimation of bus travel time is still a challenging problem, especially under heterogeneous and lane-less traffic conditions. The accuracy of such information provided to passengers depends mainly on the estimation method used, which in turns depends on the input data used. Hence, developing suitable estimation methods and identifying the most significant/appropriate input data are important. The present study focused on these aspects of development of estimation methods that can accurately estimate travel time by using significant inputs. In order to identify significant inputs, a data mining technique, namely the k-NN classifying algorithm, was used. It is based on the similarity in pattern between the input and historic data. These identified inputs were then used in a hybrid model that combined exponential smoothing technique with recursive estimation scheme based on the Kalman Filtering (KF) technique. The optimal values of the smoothing parameter were dynamically estimated and were updated using the latest measurements available from the field. The performance of the proposed algorithm showed a clear improvement in estimation accuracy when compared with existing methods.     

燃油经济模式的蓄电池电压控制系统研究

铅酸蓄电池通过化学能和电能的转换,能够为车辆储存电能和释放电能。如果蓄电池电量充足,在进入燃油经济模式后,可以通过控制蓄电池工作电压,使其放电为用电器供电,减少燃油消耗。本文在分析蓄电池工作原理和燃油经济模式特点的基础上,研究了基于反馈控制的蓄电池电压控制系统,设计了最优充电电压控制算法,并通过车辆在燃油经济模式的试验进行验证,进而优化参数设计,使系统和算法更加合理和稳健。     

用新陈代谢极限学习机实现电池健康状态估算

针对因电池内部电化学反应的复杂性、算法泛化性差或可用已知数据量少导致的锂离子电池SOH估算精度下降的问题,提出使用极限学习机(ELM)构建强泛化性电池退化状态模型来描述不同电池的共性退化规律;引入新陈代谢机制来更新退化状态模型的输入数据进而实现对SOH的新陈代谢估算,在保证估算精度的同时降低对输入数据量的需求.利用两种...     

Dynamic analysis of spiral bevel geared rotor systems applying finite elements and enhanced lumped parameters

The dynamics of spiral bevel gears like most high-speed precision gears employed in motor vehicles and off highway equipments are substantially affected by the structural characteristics of the shafts and bearings. The lumped parameter model is one of the common tools applied to perform gear dynamic analysis. Even though the lumped parameter approach is computationally fast and conveniently efficient, it typically uses limited number of coordinates and may not fully account for the shaft-bearing structural characteristics accurately. In this analysis, the finite element formulation, that can generally represent more complete characteristics of the shaft-bearing assembly, is employed to enhance the current lumped parameter synthesis theory using the concept of effective mass and inertia elements. Computational output shows that the enhanced lumped parameter synthesis model is capable of predicting sufficiently accurate dynamic response when compared to the direct dynamic finite element calculations, and much more precise response than previous lumped parameter results, especially when the gear dynamics are associated with the pinion or gear bending modes. Even though this analysis focuses primarily on the spiral bevel geared rotor systems, the proposed methodology and analysis results can be easily extended to other types of gears.     

Effective assessment of tyre–road friction coefficient using a hybrid estimator

Vehicle stability and active safety control depend heavily on tyre forces available on each wheel of a vehicle. Since tyre forces are strongly affected by the tyre–road friction coefficient, it is crucial to optimise the use of the adhesion limits of the tyres. This study presents a hybrid method to identify the road friction limitation; it contributes significantly to active vehicle safety. A hybrid estimator is developed based on the three degrees-of-freedom vehicle model, which considers longitudinal, lateral and yaw motions. The proposed hybrid estimator includes two sub-estimators: one is the vehicle state information estimator using the unscented Kalman filter and another is the integrated road friction estimator. By connecting two sub-estimators simultaneously, the proposed algorithm can effectively estimate the road friction coefficient. The performance of the proposed estimation algorithm is validated in CarSim/Matlab co-simulation environment under three different road conditions (high-μ, low-μ and mixed-μ). Simulation results show that the proposed estimator can assess vehicle states and road friction coefficient with good accuracy.     

Using GPS with a model-based estimator to estimate critical vehicle states

This paper demonstrates a method to estimate the vehicle states sideslip, yaw rate, and heading using GPS and yaw rate gyroscope measurements in a model-based estimator. The model-based estimator using GPS measurements provides accurate and observable estimates of sideslip, yaw rate, and heading even if the vehicle model is in neutral steer or if the gyro fails. This method also reduces estimation errors introduced by gyroscope errors such as the gyro bias and gyro scale factor. The GPS and Inertial Navigation System measurements are combined using a Kalman filter to generate estimates of the vehicle states. The residuals of the Kalman filter provide insight to determine if the estimator model is correct and therefore providing accurate state estimates. Additionally, a method to predict the estimation error due to errors in the estimator model is presented. The algorithms are tested in simulation with a correct and incorrect model as well as with sensor errors. Finally, the estimation scheme is tested with experimental data using a 2000 Chevrolet Blazer to further validate the algorithms.     

电动汽车SOC估计算法与电池管理系统的研究

在安时计量方法的基础上,采用基于折算库仑效率的卡尔曼滤波算法估计蓄电池荷电状态(SOC),并将此方法应用于HEV6580混合动力电动汽车镍氢电池管理系统。系统实现的功能包括:数据监测、数据显示、CAN通信、SOC估计、热管理和安全报警。经电池试验台模拟工况试验验证,电池管理系统各子系统达到设计要求且工作稳定。改进SOC估计方法解决了传统安时计量法不能估计初始SOC、难于准确测量库仑效率的问题,为电池管理系统稳定工作提供保证。     

基于改进容量增量分析法的锂电池可用容量估计

针对动力锂电池在使用过程中难以高效准确估计其衰退后可用容量的问题,提出一种不依赖滤波算法的容量增量分析法获取不同型号电池的容量衰退特征,并基于数据驱动的方法搭建可用容量估计模型。首先,分别分析低通滤波与小波滤波在获取容量增量曲线中存在的问题,并对比差分电压值在1、10、20、50 mV时容量增量曲线的形态。其次,采用移动方差算法对不同电压差分值下容量增量曲线的波动性做出评价,确定出峰值特性明显且平滑的容量增量曲线。提取曲线的峰值作为动力锂电池的老化特征,运用斯皮尔曼相关性系数验证老化特征与电池老化状态之间的相关性。然后,引入门控循环单元建立锂电池的可用容量估计模型。最后,将不同老化测试条件下的2类电池老化数据集用于模型验证。研究结果表明:所建立的估计模型能够有效估算锂电池全寿命循环内的可用容量值,2组数据集中测试结果的相对误差除个别值外,多数相对误差值在2%以内;数据组1中,分别选取电池1和电池3测试数据的前50%为训练数据,后50%为测试数据,训练结果绝对误差稳定在0.05 A·h左右,测试结果绝对误差在0.04 A·h左右;对电池2与电池3的全寿命循环可用容量做出估计,结果相对误差稳定在2%左右;数据组2中对电池5、电池6和电池7的全寿命循环可用容量估计结果的相对误差整体亦在2%以内;且模型能够对锂电池循环过程中出现容量再生现象的循环做出4%以内的准确估计,显示出良好的估算精度和泛化能力。     

Design and implementation of a new clamping force estimator in Electro-Mechanical Brake systems

In this paper, an improved clamping force estimator is proposed for Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) systems by using the motor rotor position information and the hysteresis characteristics of mechanical parts in the EMB. A cascaded type of a force/position control system with a force sensor or an estimator was designed and implemented to control the clamping force and to keep the clearance gap in EMB systems. The EMB Hardware-In-the-Loop-Simulation (HILS) results show that the proposed force estimator yields better estimation performance than the existing estimator and that the clamping force control system based on the estimator can be also used for the fault tolerant control of the system.     

Model-based control system design in a urea-SCR aftertreatment system based on NH3 sensor feedback

This paper presents preliminary control system simulation results in a urea-selective catalytic reduction (SCR) aftertreatment system based on NH₃ sensor feedback. A four-state control-oriented lumped parameter model is used to analyze the controllability and observability properties of the urea-SCR plant. A model-based estimator is designed via simulation and a control system is developed with design based on a sliding mode control framework. The control system based on NH₃ sensor feedback is analyzed via simulation by comparing it to a control system developed based on NO_x sensor feedback. Simulation results show that the NH₃ sensor-based strategy performs very similarly in comparison to a NO_x sensor-based strategy. The control system performance metrics for NO_x index, urea index, urea usage, and NH₃ slip suggest that the NO_x sensor can be a potential alternative to a NO_x sensor for urea-SCR control applications.