Model-based analysis of the mechanical subsystem of an air brake system

Most commercial vehicles such as buses and trucks use an air brake system, often equipped with an S-cam drum brake, to reduce their speed and/or to stop. With a drum brake system, the clearance between the brake shoe/pad and the brake drum may increase because of various reasons such as wearing of the brake shoe and/or brake drum and drum expansion caused by high heat generation during the braking process. Hence, to ensure proper functioning of the brake system, it is essential that the clearance between the brake shoe and the brake drum is monitored. In this paper, we present a mathematical model for the mechanical subsystem of the air brake system that can be used to monitor this clearance. This mathematical model correlates the push rod stroke transients and the brake chamber pressure transients. A kinematic analysis and a dynamic analysis of the mechanical subsystem of the air brake system were performed, and the results are corroborated with experimental data.     

Development of a model for an air brake system with leaks and a scheme for the estimation of the steady-state pushrod stroke

Brake systems in trucks are crucial for ensuring the safety of vehicles and passengers on the roadways. Most trucks in the USA are equipped with S-cam drum brake systems and they are sensitive to maintenance. Brake deficiencies such as leaks and out-of-adjustment of the pushrod are a major cause of accidents involving trucks. Leaks in the air brake systems drastically affect braking performance by decreasing the maximum attainable braking pressure and also increasing the time required to attain the same, thereby resulting in longer stopping distances. Out-of-adjustment of the pushrod leads to loss of braking torque even if no leaks are present in the air brake system. In this paper, we present a mathematical model for an air brake system in the presence of leaks, with a view towards developing a diagnostic system for the air brake system based on the models. Additionally, we present a scheme that estimates the severity of leak in terms of the mass flow rate of air leaking from the air brake system to the atmosphere. This scheme can be implemented using a simple look-up table. We also present a steady-state pushrod stroke estimation scheme, based on brake chamber pressure measurements in the absence of any leaks in the air brake system.     

Heavy-duty vehicle modelling and longitudinal control

This paper addresses modelling, longitudinal control design and implementation for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). The challenging problems here are: (a) an HDV is mass dominant with low power to mass ratio; (b) They possess large actuator delay and actuator saturation. To reduce model mismatch, it is necessary to obtain a nonlinear model which is as simple as the control design method can handle and as complicated as necessary to capture the intrinsic vehicle dynamics. A second order nonlinear vehicle body dynamical model is adopted, which is feedback linearizable. Beside the vehicle dynamics, other main dynamical components along the power-train and drive-train are also modelled, which include turbocharged diesel engine, torque converter, transmission, transmission retarder, pneumatic brake and tyre. The braking system is the most challenging part for control design, which contains three parts: Jake (engine compression) brake, air brake and transmission retarder. The modelling for each is provided. The use of engine braking effect is new complementary to Jake (compression) brake for longitudinal control, which is united with Jake brake in modelling. The control structure can be divided into upper level and lower level. Upper level control uses sliding mode control to generate the desired torque from the desired vehicle acceleration. Lower level control is divided into two branches: (a) engine control: from positive desired torque to desired fuel rate (engine control) using a static engine mapping which basically captures the intrinsic dynamic performance of the turbo-charged diesel engine; (b) brake control: from desired negative torque to generate Jake brake cylinder number to be activated and ON/OFF time periods, applied pneumatic brake pressure and applied voltage of transmission retarder. Test results are also reported.     

Heavy-duty vehicle modelling and longitudinal control

This paper addresses modelling, longitudinal control design and implementation for heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). The challenging problems here are: (a) an HDV is mass dominant with low power to mass ratio; (b) They possess large actuator delay and actuator saturation. To reduce model mismatch, it is necessary to obtain a nonlinear model which is as simple as the control design method can handle and as complicated as necessary to capture the intrinsic vehicle dynamics. A second order nonlinear vehicle body dynamical model is adopted, which is feedback linearizable. Beside the vehicle dynamics, other main dynamical components along the power-train and drive-train are also modelled, which include turbocharged diesel engine, torque converter, transmission, transmission retarder, pneumatic brake and tyre. The braking system is the most challenging part for control design, which contains three parts: Jake (engine compression) brake, air brake and transmission retarder. The modelling for each is provided. The use of engine braking effect is new complementary to Jake (compression) brake for longitudinal control, which is united with Jake brake in modelling. The control structure can be divided into upper level and lower level. Upper level control uses sliding mode control to generate the desired torque from the desired vehicle acceleration. Lower level control is divided into two branches: (a) engine control: from positive desired torque to desired fuel rate (engine control) using a static engine mapping which basically captures the intrinsic dynamic performance of the turbo-charged diesel engine; (b) brake control: from desired negative torque to generate Jake brake cylinder number to be activated and ON/OFF time periods, applied pneumatic brake pressure and applied voltage of transmission retarder. Test results are also reported.     

发动机制动、排气制动与缓行器联合作用的模糊控制系统研究

针对客车山区道路下坡行驶过程中对稳定车速的要求，对客车发动机制动、排气制动与缓行器联合作用时的制动模糊控制系统进行了设计和模拟分析。结果表明此控制系统可以保证汽车在不采用主制动器的条件下，利用发动机制动、排气制动与缓行器联合作用的持续制动方式，在各种坡度的坡道上以希望的车速稳定下坡行驶。     

Design and validation of an electro-hydraulic brake system using hardware-in-the-loop real-time simulation

This paper presents a novel electric booster (E-booster) that exibits superior performance advantages over traditional vacuum boosters. The proposed E-booster, consisting of an electric motor and a ball screw assembly, is designed for electro-hydraulic brake (EHB) systems to meet relevant requirements for electric vehicles and active safety technologies. A mathematical model for an EHB system is generated to determine the desired values of the parameters for the E-booster prototype using numerical simulation in MATLAB. Simulation results of the EHB system with the virtual E-booster demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the innovative technique. Built upon the results derived from the numerical simualtions, an integrated algorithm based on the Kalman filter and a sliding mode control technique is designed to control the E-booster motor and to implement the brake booster function. A hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) real-time simulation system equipped with the E-booster prototype is developed. HIL real-time simulations are conducted to evaluate the proposed algorithm. The HIL real-time simulation results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm generates booster brake forces fast, and forces the ball nut to track the push rod well to ensure comfortable brake pedal feel.     

防抱死制动系统模糊自学习控制研究

由于车辆参数和运行工况的复杂多变，针对特定参数和路面条件所设计的防抱死制动系统往往难以适应。为解决这一问题，文中首先建立了带有盘式制动器的双轮车辆直线制动系统的数学模型；而后提出了模糊自学习控制策略，该方案通过引入模糊学习机制以调整模糊控制器的规则集，可使车辆对象输出跟踪理想参考模型的输出；接着对所设计控制算法在不同路面条件下进行了性能模拟；最后开发了模糊自学习微控制器，基于硬件在环仿真技术，对设计控制器的性能进行了实验验证。     

Development of vehicle dynamics management system for hybrid vehicles: ECB system for improved environmental and vehicle dynamic performance

In anticipation of the increased needs to further reduce exhaust gas emissions and improve fuel consumption, a new brake-by-wire system called an “electronically controlled brake” system (hereafter referred to as “ECB”) has been developed. With this brake system, which is able to smoothly control the hydraulic pressure that is applied to each of the four wheel cylinders on an individual basis, functional enhancements can be added by appropriately modifying its software. This paper discusses the necessity of the ECB, the system configuration and the results of its application on hybrid vehicles.     

日野ZY240H载货自卸车制动系统

日野ＺＹ２４０Ｈ２０吨自卸车的制动系统采用双回路独立全气压式工作系统，前轮和后轮制动各用一个独立执行气压制动回路，前桥和后桥后轮采用膜片制动气室，后桥前轮设置了弹簧储能复合制动气室，又设置了一套手动控制的制动系统，作为紧急制动系统失效后的第二种制动方法。另外，还有排气缓速装置和机械手制动，详细介绍了该系统的工作原理和主要部件的功用。     

基于集成式电液制动系统的主动制动压力精确控制方法

智能电动汽车的发展对制动系统的主动制动和再生制动能力提出了更高的要求。配备真空助力器的传统制动系统难以满足智能电动汽车的需求，因此逐渐被线控制动系统所取代。为提高线控制动系统的集成度与解耦能力，提出了一种新型集成式电液制动系统（Integrated Braking Control System，IBC），能够实现主动制动、再生制动、失效备份等功能。作为机-电-液耦合的高集成度系统，IBC具有复杂的非线性特性和动态摩擦特性，对制动系统压力的精确控制提出了挑战。为了提高IBC制动压力动态控制精度，提出了一种基于集成式电液制动系统的主动制动压力精确控制方法。首先，介绍了IBC的结构原理和控制架构。随后针对液压系统的迟滞特性和传动机构的摩擦特性进行建模与测试。然后基于系统的强非线性特性，提出了主动制动三层闭环级联控制器，其中压力控制层采用液压特性前馈与变增益反馈结合的控制策略，伺服层控制器设计考虑了机构惯性补偿与摩擦补偿，电机控制层采用矢量控制并进行了电压前馈解耦。最后，基于dSPACE设备搭建了硬件在环（Hardware-in-the-loop，HiL）试验台对主动压力控制方法进行验证。结果表明：所提出的压力控制方法能控制制动系统压力快速精确跟随期望压力，使动态压力跟随误差控制在0.4 MPa之内，稳态压力误差控制在0.1 MPa之内。     

Fuzzy adaptive sliding mode controller for an air spring active suspension

A fuzzy adaptive sliding mode controller for an air spring active suspension system is developed. Due to nonlinearity, preload-dependent spring force and parameter uncertainty in the air spring, it is difficult to control the suspension system. To achieve the desired performance, a fuzzy adaptive sliding mode controller (FASMC) is designed to improve the passenger comfort and the manipulability of the vehicle. The fuzzy adaptive system handles the nonlinearity and uncertainty of the air suspension. A normal linear suspension model with an optimal state feedback control is designed as the reference model. The simulation results show that this control scheme more effectively and robustly isolates vibrations of the vehicle body than the conventional sliding mode controller (CSMC).     

新型汽车液压增力制动控制器

为了提高汽车制动效率开发一种汽车液压增力制动控制器（HBI）.它主要由增压缸等组成,串联于汽车制动主缸与前制动轮缸之间,将制动主缸输出压力制动液增压,送往前制动轮缸.同时还将压力制动液直接送往后制动轮缸,实现汽车增压制动,其制动效率高于现有减压分配阀组成的制动系统效率10%以上.对具有HBI系统的制动性能检测表明,HBI可用于多种车型的制动系统中,制动踏板力明显下降100 N左右,制动稳定性明显提高.     

Modeling and control of an anti-lock brake and steering system for cooperative control on split-mu surfaces

The brake and steering systems in vehicles are the most effective actuators that directly affect the vehicle dynamics. In general, the brake system affects the longitudinal dynamics and the steering system affects the lateral dynamics; however, their effects are coupled when the vehicle is braking on a non-homogenous surface, such as a split-mu road. The yaw moment compensation of the steering control on a split-mu road is one of the basic functions of integrated or coordinated chassis control systems and has been demonstrated by several chassis suppliers. However, the disturbance yaw moment is generally compensated for using the yaw rate feedback or using wheel brake pressure measurement. Access to the wheel brake pressure through physical sensors is not cost effective; therefore, we modeled the hydraulic brake system to avoid using physical sensors and to estimate the brake pressure. The steering angle controller was designed to mitigate the non-symmetric braking force effect and to stabilize the yaw rate dynamics of the vehicle. An H-infinity design synthesis was used to take the system model and the estimation errors into account, and the designed controller was evaluated using vehicle tests.     

Emergency Braking Control with an Observer-based Dynamic Tire/Road Friction Model and Wheel Angular Velocity Measurement

Summary A control scheme for emergency braking of vehicles is designed. The tire/road friction is described by a LuGre dynamic friction model. The control system output is the pressure in the master cylinder of the brake system. The controller utilizes estimated states for a feedback control law that achieves a near maximum deceleration. The state observer is designed using linear matrix inequality (LMI) techniques. The analysis shows that using the wheel angular speed information exclusively is not sufficient to rapidly estimate the velocity and relative velocity, due to the fact that the dynamical system is almost unobservable with this measurement as output. Findings are confirmed by simulation results that show that the estimated vehicle velocity and relative velocity converge slowly to their true values, even though the internal friction state and friction parameters converge quickly. The proposed control system has two main advantages when compared with an antilock braking system (ABS): (1) it produces a source of a priori information regarding safe spacing between vehicles that can be used to increase safety levels in the highway; and (2) it achieves a near optimal braking strategy with less chattering.     

Control of Wheel Slip Ratio Using Sliding Mode Controller with Pulse Width Modulation

For the control of anti-lock brake system (ABS), a longitudinal four-wheel vehicle model with brake actuator is described and a sliding mode controller with pulse width modulation (PWM) method has been developed for passenger vehicles. In our research, we introduce actuator dynamics of solenoid-solenoid valve type in system equation and derive the sliding mode control input theoretically. We propose using PWM method to compensate for the discrete nature of actuator dynamics by duty control. The effectiveness of the proposed control algorithms was confirmed by vehicle test on an in-door test bench that was specially constructed for the purpose concerned.     

Control of Wheel Slip Ratio Using Sliding Mode Controller with Pulse Width Modulation

For the control of anti-lock brake system (ABS), a longitudinal four-wheel vehicle model with brake actuator is described and a sliding mode controller with pulse width modulation (PWM) method has been developed for passenger vehicles. In our research, we introduce actuator dynamics of solenoid-solenoid valve type in system equation and derive the sliding mode control input theoretically. We propose using PWM method to compensate for the discrete nature of actuator dynamics by duty control. The effectiveness of the proposed control algorithms was confirmed by vehicle test on an in-door test bench that was specially constructed for the purpose concerned.     

Emergency Braking Control with an Observer-based Dynamic Tire/Road Friction Model and Wheel Angular Velocity Measurement

Summary A control scheme for emergency braking of vehicles is designed. The tire/road friction is described by a LuGre dynamic friction model. The control system output is the pressure in the master cylinder of the brake system. The controller utilizes estimated states for a feedback control law that achieves a near maximum deceleration. The state observer is designed using linear matrix inequality (LMI) techniques. The analysis shows that using the wheel angular speed information exclusively is not sufficient to rapidly estimate the velocity and relative velocity, due to the fact that the dynamical system is almost unobservable with this measurement as output. Findings are confirmed by simulation results that show that the estimated vehicle velocity and relative velocity converge slowly to their true values, even though the internal friction state and friction parameters converge quickly. The proposed control system has two main advantages when compared with an antilock braking system (ABS): (1) it produces a source of a priori information regarding safe spacing between vehicles that can be used to increase safety levels in the highway; and (2) it achieves a near optimal braking strategy with less chattering.     

Design of Nonlinear Sliding Mode Controller with Pulse Width Modulation for Vehicular Slip Ratio Control

For the control of anti-lock brake system (ABS), a longitudinal four-wheel vehicle model with brake actuator is described and a sliding mode controller with pulse width modulation (PWM) method has been developed for passenger vehicles. In our research, we introduced actuator dynamics in the system equation and derived the equivalent control input theoretically. We propose using the PWM method to compensate for the discrete nature of actuator dynamics by duty control. Stability of the PWM controller for sliding mode control (SMC) was theoretically checked. The effectiveness of the proposed control algorithms was confirmed by vehicle tests on an In-door test bench that was specially constructed for the purpose concerned.     

Development of an electric booster system using sliding mode control for improved braking performance

Brake systems of the future, including BBW (Brake-by-Wire), are in development in various forms. In one of the proposed hydraulic BBW systems, an electric booster system replaces the pneumatic brake booster with an electric motor and a rotational-to-linear motion mechanism. This system is able to provide improved braking performance by the design of controllers with precise target pressure tracking and control robustness for better system reliability. First, a sliding mode controller is designed using the Lyapunov function approach to secure the robustness of the system against both the model uncertainty and the disturbance caused by the master cylinder and mechanical components. Next, a simulation tool is constructed to validate the electric booster system with the proposed controller. Finally, the electric booster system is implemented into an actual brake ECU and installed in a vehicle for testing under various braking conditions. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed controller produces faster pressure build-up performance than the conventional brake system, and its tracking performance is sufficient to ensure comfortable braking.     

大功率自动变速器换挡离合器调压控制研究

为了改善大功率自动变速器换挡过程中换挡离合器（含湿式制动器和湿式离合器）油压的调控水平,提高车辆的换挡品质,从结构上在换挡离合器中设计平衡活塞来补偿离合器旋转离心的影响,并在排油回路中增加背压阀以消除活塞腔内空气造成的不确定性。通过对换挡执行系统结构进行分析,分别针对离合器活塞、电液调压过程及离合器滑摩过程进行模型计算,在此基础上,将惯性相的充油调压控制进行拆解,即在转矩相结束时刻初始常量的基础上叠加一阶控制过程,针对换挡过程中系统存在非线性干扰和参数不确定性的特点,结合系统特性的分阶段试验标定,制定了换挡离合器调压过程的滑模控制策略,并基于MATLAB环境对控制策略的正确性和有效性进行仿真分析,最后进行实车试验验证。研究结果表明：无论是制动器充油还是旋转离合器充油,控制策略均能将惯性相持续时间、换挡冲击和滑摩功率损失等控制在合理范围;控制策略具有良好的性能,旋转离合器和制动器都能实现稳健的惯性相调压控制。