Performance Indicator Importance in MPA Management Using a Multi-Criteria Approach

Much has been written about the usefulness of marine protected areas (MPAs) as a management tool. Their performance has been measured using biological and ecological indicators. However, objectives of management also include economic and social responsibilities. As such, stakeholder objectives in MPA management are frequently incompatible. This has been attributed to the variety of stakeholders with an interest in how MPAs are managed. This article considers the development of a performance indicator hierarchy for the Egadi Islands Marine Reserve, and a multi-criteria approach implemented to define compromise positions between stakeholders in decision-making. Data was obtained from a pairwise comparison survey using the analytic hierarchy process to investigate preferences of stakeholder groups for performance indicators in evaluating marine protected area management. The analysis showed that although there are five key stakeholder groups, none are homogenous in prioritizing performance indicators and that none are clear with respect to what the MPA means for them.     

Improved Management Effectiveness of a Marine Protected Area through Prioritizing Performance Indicators

The management success of a marine protected area (MPA) is essentially a social construct because people have differing views on what defines success. Conflicting opinions between stakeholders need to be identified and resolved to ensure these factors do not interfere with successful functioning of MPAs. This study looked at developing and prioritizing performance indicators for Maria Island Marine Nature Reserve (MIMNR), Australia. Performance indicators were developed for MIMNR based on an expert-led, structured framework and then prioritized using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), with respect to input from key informants of stakeholder groups. Results showed that all stakeholder groups agreed that management of MIMNR should first focus on “abundance and size of native species,” and that managers, fishers, and environmental nongovernmental organizations place a significantly higher priority on ecological over socioeconomic and governance performance indicators. Researchers placed even emphasis across all priorities. Results suggest that MIMNR should first focus on monitoring “abundance and size of native species” and demonstrates the capacity of the AHP to increase management effectiveness and improve the decision-making process. Furthermore, by identifying where discrepancies in preferences exist, the outcomes of this research can be used to enhance collaboration among stakeholders.     

Analysis of the parasitic copepod species richness among Mediterranean fish

The Mediterranean ichthyofauna is composed of 652 species belonging to 405 genera and 117 families. Among these, 182 were studied for their parasitic copepods. The analysis of all the works conducted on these crustacea yielded 226 species distributed in 88 genera and 20 families. For each fish species we have established a file providing the species name of the fish, its family, its geographical distribution within the Mediterranean and some of its bio-ecological characteristics. Within each file, all the parasitic copepod species reported on each host species were listed. This allowed to know the species richness (SR) of these hosts. We thus produced 182 files within which 226 copepod species are distributed. A program was created under the Hypercard software, in order to analyse our data. Two parameters were studied. The first one is the mean species richness (MSR), which corresponds to the mean of the different SR found on the different host species. The second is the parasite–host ratio (P/H), which is the ratio of the number of copepod species by the number of host species. These parameters are calculated by our program for all the 182 species of Mediterranean fishes retained in our investigation, on the first hand, and, on the second hand, for one particular group of fish species. We used the following variables to investigate their correlations with copepod species richness: taxonomy—fish families, genera and species; biometry—maximal size of the adult fish; eco-ethology—mode of life (benthic, pelagic or nectonic), displacements (sedentary, migratory with environmental change, or migratory without environmental change), behaviour (solitary or gregarious). Other variables (colour, food, reproduction, abundance, distribution area) were also analysed but did not reveal any clear correlation. Providing that our study does not rely on quantitative (prevalence, intensity) but qualitative basis our aim was only to reveal some tendencies. These tendencies are as follows: (1) In many cases, parasite and host phylogeny seem to play an important role. There are fish families with copepods and families with few species of these parasites. The phyletic constraints could be due to the morphological characteristics of the habitat (e.g. structure of the gills) or biological/ecological characteristics that we were unable to identify. (2) It appears that the presence in a same environment of related fish species (e.g. several species of the same genus, or numerous genera of the same family) is correlated with high parasite richness. A likely explanation is that such situations favours alternated processes of lateral transfers and speciation. (3) Some eco-ethological criteria seem to favour the establishment of a large parasite species richness. It should be noted for instance that Mediterranean fishes the most often infected with copepods are generally nectonic or pelagic, migratory, and gregarious species.     

Institutional arrangements for coastal conservation in New Zealand

Abstract

The focus of this paper is institutional arrangements for initiative coastal conservation in New Zealand. “Initiative”; conservation refers to positive measures for the protection of the natural environment for reasons related to its inherent worth. Case studies were undertaken in five areas with different biophysical and societal characteristics, where various approaches to coastal conservation are being attempted. In each area, an issue was analyzed to identify conservation policies and their relationship to ecological and human needs, and to administrative and legal frameworks. Analysis demonstrated that initiative conservation policy can encompass user and community needs while maintaining ecological priorities. Institutional arrangements do not appear to restrict the development of this type of policy in New Zealand, but they do limit its formal expression and implementation. Arrangements for cohesive conservation areas spanning the land‐sea interface are particularly lacking.     

Nearshore Restoration in Puget Sound: Understanding Stakeholder Values and Potential Coalitions

Restoration of nearshore ecosystems presents many challenges for stakeholder involvement. Using surveys and interviews we examined stakeholder values, preferences, and potential coalitions surrounding nearshore restoration in the Whidbey sub-basin of Puget Sound. Most stakeholders in our study believe that Puget Sound nearshore problems are severe and urgent, and that it is worth investing in restoration. They do not agree on the causes of nearshore degradation, yet support stronger regulatory enforcement and increased public ownership as possible solutions to nearshore problems. Five potential stakeholder coalitions were identified based on shared values. These values reflect a varied spectrum of support for public sector solutions to nearshore problems and were labeled: No Government Intervention, Property Rights, Private Land Stewardship, Protect Undeveloped Areas, and Large Scale Restoration. The potential coalitions identified confirm the Advocacy Coalition Framework hypothesis that coalition members who share values do not necessarily share stakeholder demographics or preferences. This study demonstrates one method for understanding local stakeholders, and will help managers direct project resources, planning, and management, through reliance on both stakeholder and scientific input. In addition, managers can use information about stakeholder values and potential coalitions to more effectively frame communication products and stakeholder involvement activities.     

Assessment of Vulnerability and Integrated Management of Coastal Dunes in Veracruz,Mexico

Dune systems are essential to the ecological balance and sediment inputs of coastal environments and they provide numerous environmental services; however, their existence is threatened by natural and human stressors that contribute to their degradation. Future impacts are expected to be greater because of global climate change in association with further rises in sea level. Beaches and dune systems occupy large areas along the coastline of the state of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. The aim of this study is to establish the intrinsic vulnerability of nine dune fields in Veracruz to current and future impacts and to assess their integrated management status. These dune–beach systems are more vulnerable to the effects of economic activities and land use change than to those induced by natural forces. Results show that six of these dune systems have medium vulnerability and an ecological conservation policy should be adopted; the other three, with high or very high vulnerability, are candidates for a restoration policy.     

Evaluation of manatee habitat systems on the northwestern Florida coast

Abstract

Threats to the survival of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) vary throughout their range so that protection of this endangered species requires careful planning on a regional and local basis. The importance and vulnerability of various components of manatee habitats in the Crystal River area of northwestern Florida were assessed, using an ordinal‐combination mapping technique similar to procedures practiced in urban and regional planning. Habitat components were mapped and evaluated in juxtaposition with relevant characteristics of human use of the area, to identify areas of existing and potential manatee/human conflicts in need of reconciliation. Areas evaluated as the most important manatee habitats within this region include Crystal Bay and River, Homosassa River, and the Suwannee River estuary. Existing overlap of human activities with important manatee habitats is most critical near the urban communities of Crystal River and, to a lesser degree, Homosassa Springs. The need for integration of this ecological information into coastal land‐use planning is discussed.     

Developing MPA Effectiveness Indicators: Comparison Within and Across Stakeholder Groups and Communities

Shared expectations about marine protected areas (MPAs) might be expected to enhance their effectiveness. This study determined whether members of local communities had common or divergent views about the objectives and indicators of MPA effectiveness. In the central Philippines we used unconstrained and constrained methods to interview people in five stakeholder groups (elders, fishers, leaders, women, and youth) associated with each of 10 community-based no-take MPAs that had been protected between 0 and 21 years. Respondents identified multiple MPA objectives, the most frequently mentioned of which was restoring and sustaining fish populations. The results suggest that MPA age accounts for the greatest level of variation across communities. When unconstrained, progress in enforcement was identified as a key indicator among respondents from younger MPAs while respondents from older MPAs identified increased fish abundance and catch. Although consensus can be reached more easily under constrained conditions, the results derived from unconstrained methods are more revealing of the needs and aspirations of communities. These are likely to contribute more to the search for appropriate management interventions, particularly given that MPAs evolve over time. Hence, the development of MPA effectiveness indicators must be an iterative community-informed process to ensure timely and relevant management interventions.     

Advancing Coastal Habitat Resiliency Through Landscape-Scale Assessment

Coastal areas are among the most biologically rich regions in the world. They provide tremendous benefit to people through ecological services like pollution filtration, carbon sequestration, and storm protection. However, human activity has decreased the ability of ecosystems to provide these services, and in many coastal areas, restoration is not as effective as it could be. Limited success is largely attributed to vague goals and a lack of holistic, science-informed planning. Quantifying coastal habitat health can aid in setting better restoration goals and lead to greater restoration success. The Long Island Sound Study National Estuary Program conducted the first comprehensive look at coastal habitat health for the Long Island Sound Estuary. In this study we also reviewed landscape-scale habitat assessment progress within other coastal programs. Results can be applied to establish ecosystem health-oriented goals that improve habitat function and resilience across coastal areas.     

Exposure of Fauna to Off-Road Vehicle (ORV) Traffic on Sandy Beaches

Driving of off-road vehicles (ORVs) on sandy beaches is common and widespread, but is not universally embraced due to putative environmental impacts on beach biota. For ORVs to impact the beach fauna, traffic areas must overlap with faunal habitat: a fundamental pre-requisite for impact assessments but as yet un-quantified for sandy beaches. Thus, this study quantified the spatial and temporal patterns of ORV traffic on five Australian beaches, and measured the degree to which the distribution of intertidal macro-invertebrates overlaps with traffic zones. Traffic volumes on beaches can be considerable (up to 500 vehicles per day). The position of beach traffic across the beach-face is principally governed by tides and driver behavior. Despite driver education campaigns to the contrary, a considerable fraction of vehicles (16–67%) traverses the soft, upper shore near the foredunes. The majority (65%) of burrowing invertebrate species of the intertidal zone is directly exposed to traffic, save for species inhabiting the swash zone. Because beach traffic presents a formidable management challenge, a fundamental first step in identifying whether ecological impacts are indeed likely, is to assess the potential for spatial and temporal conflict between human pressures (e.g., ORVs) and biological resources (e.g., beach fauna). Although this potential is certainly substantial for sandy shores used by ORVs, the actual ecological impacts on the intertidal fauna can only be predicted in situations where the responses (e.g., direct mortality, behavioral changes) of individual species to beach traffic are known.     

基于微扰法观察波斯湾环境条件对声散射的影响（英文）

The main goal of this paper is to investigate sound scattering from the sea surface, by Kuo's small perturbation method(SPM), in the Persian Gulf's environmental conditions. Accordingly, the SPM method is reviewed, then it is demonstrated how it can accurately model sound scattering from the sea surface. Since in Kuo's approach, the effects of surface roughness and sub-surface bubble plumes on incident sounds can be studied separately, it is possible to investigate the importance of each mechanism in various scattering regimes. To conduct this study, wind and wave information reported by Arzanah station as well as some numerical atmospheric models for the Persian Gulf are presented and applied to examine sound scattering from the sea surface in the Persian Gulf region. Plots of scattering strength by Kuo's SPM method versus grazing angle for various frequencies, wave heights, and wind speeds are presented. The calculated scattering strength by the SPM method for various frequencies and wind speeds are compared against the results of critical sea tests 7(CST-7). The favorable agreement achieved for sound scattering in the Persian Gulf region is indicative of the fact that the SPM method can quite accurately model and predict sound scattering from the sea surface.     

Artificial Reefs as Restoration Tools: A Case Study on the West Florida Shelf

Artificial reefs are one of a number of tools that should be considered by scientists and managers when planning coastal zone restoration and/or mitigation projects. In this article, the details of one project from the West Florida Shelf are presented. Two types of artificial reefs were used to mitigate pipeline construction impacts on natural hardbottom ledges in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. The project's primary objective was to avoid the paradigm of building artificial reefs as fish attraction devices, and to instead implement a design that would mimic, not augment, natural hardbottom conditions. Fish assemblage parameters (species richness and commercial fish abundances) were compared between the artificial habitats and natural hardbottom reference sites. Results indicate that species richness trends are similar among artificial and natural reefs, while certain commercial fish abundances are significantly higher on the artificial reefs. Recommendations for future restoration/mitigation projects using artificial reefs are discussed.     

A Preliminary Review of NOAA's Community-Based Dam Removal and Fish Passage Projects

Dams and other stream blockages prevent anadromous fish from accessing large areas of key habitat. The NOAA Community-Based Restoration Program (CRP) supports habitat restoration projects, including 53 dam removal and fish passage projects from 1996 to 2002. This article provides a preliminary review of the biological benefits provided by the first 18 CRP dam removal and fish passage projects supported between 1996 and 1999. These 18 projects improved access to over 160 km of river habitat for many anadromous fish species, especially river herring (Alosa spp.) on the east coast and salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) on the west coast. While fish ladders provide targeted fish species access to key habitat areas, dam removal can improve the health of entire stream ecosystems and provide fish passage to fish species unable to utilize ladders. The CRP complements existing federal regulatory programs by providing a cooperative process at the local level that can restore habitats efficiently and effectively while encouraging long-term stewardship.     

Climate–ocean variability and Pacific hake: A geostatistical modeling approach

Climate forcing of the California Current has been known to impact the distribution and abundance of a number of local fish populations, but the mechanisms involved remain poorly understood. Climate metrics such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are usually used to represent climate processes and direct links are made between climate forcing and production variability. This involves aggregation of impacts across large spatial scales and range of species. However, fluctuations in productivity are often the result of changes in physical habitat. In order to fully understand the relationship between climate and productivity, habitat changes should be addressed. In this study we use a geostatistical approach to quantify adult Pacific hake habitat during different climate regimes. Several authors have suggested that the distribution and intensity of the sub-surface poleward flow (the undercurrent) plays a key role in defining adult hake habitat along the west coast of North America. Here we build a model designed to predict hake habitat distribution in space based on sub-surface poleward flow distribution and bottom depth. Our results show that hake habitat expands in 1998 El Niño year compared to 1995. Given the important predatory role that hake plays in the CC, the amount and distribution of adult hake habitat has large implications for the Pacific Northwest food web and could thus serve as an ecosystem indicator representing important physical–biological interactions. Spatially based ecosystem indicators such as the one we develop here address two important yet neglected areas in the ‘Ecosystem Indicators debate’: the importance of developing metrics explicitly representing spatial and environmental processes shaping ecosystem structure. Without these, our power to fully describe ecosystems will be limited.     

The association of the population recruitment of gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, with Mississippi River discharge

Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, which constitutes a major industrial reduction fishery in the USA, spawn across the northern Gulf of Mexico with a focus of spawning about the Mississippi Delta. This species is estuarine dependent; adults spawn over the continental shelf and their larvae are transported, by mechanisms that are presently not well understood, to estuarine nursery areas. Larval gulf menhaden, along with some other surface oriented larval fishes, appear to aggregate along the Mississippi River plume front, while evidence of the ecological consequences of this aggregation in terms of the feeding, growth, and survival of larvae is ambiguous. On an annual scale, Mississippi River discharge is negatively associated with numbers of half year old recruits. Discharge of the Mississippi River and the population recruitment of gulf menhaden may be plausibly linked through the action of the river's plume and its front on the shoreward transport of larvae. Greater river discharge results in an expansive plume that might project larvae farther offshore and prolong the shoreward transport of larvae. An indirect, decadal scale, positive response of recruitment and river discharge is possible, but not certain. Recruitment became elevated after 1975 when river discharge increased and became highly variable. This response might owe to enhanced primary and secondary production driven by nutrient influx from the Mississippi River.     

Constraint Mapping as a Means of Further Refining Saltmarsh Re-Creation Opportunities for the UK Solent Region

Based on geomorphological criteria, the Coastal Habitat Management Plan (CHaMP) for the Solent identified some 4,800 hectares of land potentially suitable for the creation of intertidal habitat, principally saltmarsh, through the use of managed realignment. Using “constraint mapping,” this study set out to illustrate that limitations to habitat re-creation through inundation are not merely geomorphological in nature. Indeed, a broad range of social, political, legal, technical, and economic constraints exist and must be evaluated in conjunction with physical parameters if the objectives of the European Birds and Habitats Directives are to be met, and so that future coastal defense policies ensure maintenance of the “favorable conservation status” of designated sites. A numerical filter system has been used to re-evaluate individual sites to establish “realistic” opportunities for compensatory saltmarsh creation in the Solent. As a result of taking into account wider socioeconomic constraints, it is clear that fewer areas are available for habitat creation purposes than were initially identified in the Solent CHaMP study.     

The influence of upwelling and entrainment on the algal bloom in the Baltic Sea

Hydrodynamic processes control many geochemical and ecological processes in the sea. In this paper, the influence of up- and downwelling and entrainment on the ecosystem components are studied. The ecohydrodynamic model was initially used to simulate the whole Baltic Sea to get the boundary conditions for the Gulf of Riga. Then, to study the influence of different hydrodynamic conditions on the algal bloom, three simulations were made for the Gulf of Riga using different boundary and entrainment conditions. It appears that upwelling in the gulf was strongly dependent on open boundary conditions between the Baltic Proper and the gulf. The vertical transport in the Gulf of Riga was many times more intensive in the calculation system Baltic Proper and Gulf of Riga, than in the case where only the Gulf of Riga was simulated. The blue–green algal bloom was influenced by the vertical transport due to different nutrients' limitation mechanism.     

The Causal Effects of Place Attachment and Tourism Development on Coastal Residents' Environmentally Responsible Behavior

Coastal areas are generally known as high-usage areas for residential, recreational, and tourism purposes. Coastal residents, as well as local visitors, therefore, can play an important role in protecting coastal resources. The purpose of this study was to identify important factors that could promote residents' environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The two concepts, place attachment and attitudes toward tourism development (ATTD), were included to verify causal relationships of ERB. For data analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were conducted. Study results showed that place identity fully mediated the relationship between place dependence and ERB. With respect to the two dimensions of ATTD, there was a positive relationship between perceived benefits and ERB, while perceived concerns mediated this relationship. To promote ERB, the study emphasized the importance of developing place identity by providing diverse economical, socio-cultural, and recreational coastal benefits. In addition, involving those residents, who are positively and negatively impacted by tourism development, in the process of sustainable tourism development will develop more effective sustainable development strategies by reflecting local residents' opinions and preferences.     

Examining Local Coastal Zone Management Capacity in U.S. Pacific Coastal Counties

The coastal zone has critical natural, commercial, recreational, ecological, industrial, and esthetic values for current and future generations. Thus, there are increasing pressures from population growth and coastal land development. Local coastal land use planning plays an important role in implementing the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) by establishing goals and performance policies for addressing critical coastal issues. This study extends the CZMA Performance Measurement System from the national level to the local land use level by measuring coastal zone land use plan quality and political context in fifty-three Pacific coastal counties. Plan quality is measured using an evaluation protocol defined by five components and sixty-eight indicators. The results indicate a reasonable correspondence between national goals and local coastal zone land use planning goals, but a slight gap might exist between the national/state versus local levels in the overall effectiveness of coastal zone management (CZM) efforts. The results show many U.S. Pacific coastal counties lack strong coastal zone land use plans because the average plan quality score was only 22.7 out of 50 points. Although these plans set relatively clear goals and objectives, they are somewhat weaker in their factual basis, identify a limited range of the available planning tools and techniques, and establish few coordination and implementation mechanisms. The regression analysis results indicate that CZM plan quality was not significantly related to any of the jurisdictional characteristics.     

Perceptions of Threats Facing Cabo de Palos - Islas Hormigas MPA and Potential Solutions

Many marine protected areas (MPAs) face a multitude of threats to the ecosystems that they have been established to conserve. This study is based on 111 interviews conducted in 2013–2014 designed to discover the perceptions of stakeholders about the threats, the causes of the threats, and their responses to the threats, to a well-established MPA – Cabo de Palos - Islas Hormigas (CPH-MPA). This MPA was created to safeguard fisheries and the associated artisanal fishers, but over time it has become a tourism “hotspot.” Resilience theory, which incorporates ecological resilience, social resilience, and individual resilience, helps us to analyze stakeholders' responses to threats by categorizing them into passive, adaptive, and transformative responses. We found respondents identified four main threats – over-fishing, excessive scuba diving, pollution, and invasive species; attributed the threats to three main causes – ineffective management, poor environmental stewardship, and climate change; and expressed three kinds of responses – do nothing, adapt, or transform – with a preference for adaptation and (especially) transformation. The lesson of this study is that it shows how, unless drastic action is taken to curb recreational diving activities, the CPH-MPA is in danger of changing from a fishing reserve to a largely unregulated leisure diving venue, which is unlikely to fulfill the requirements of resilience; ecological, social, or individual.