Vulnerable road users: Cross-cultural perspectives on performance and attitudes

Pedestrians, cyclists and powered two-wheeler riders are considered vulnerable road users, as they are prone to a high risk of injury in the event of vehicular collision. This paper sought to elucidate the road safety performance and attitudes of vulnerable road users in 32 countries. In addition, comparisons between countries and demographic characteristics have been conducted, and recommendations that could enhance vulnerable road users' safety have been provided. For the study, data from the second edition of the ESRA survey (E-Survey on Road Users' Attitudes – ESRA2) conducted in 2018 were utilized. The results indicate that crossing the road at places other than nearby pedestrian crossings, reading a text message or checking social media while walking on the streets, cycling and riding without wearing a helmet, and speeding on powered two-wheelers outside built-up areas but not on motorways/freeways were the most frequently reported self-declared behaviours in the 32 countries. Finally, some solutions on preventing road crashes and increasing vulnerable road users' safety such as infrastructure interventions, use of protective equipment, and training and educational campaigns are discussed.     

Car drivers' road safety performance: A benchmark across 32 countries

The road safety performance of a country and the success of policy measures can be measured and monitored in different ways. In addition to the traditional road safety indicators based on the number of fatalities or injured people in road traffic crashes, complementary road safety performance indicators can be used in relation to vehicles, infrastructure, or road users' behaviour. The last-mentioned can be based on data from roadside surveys or from questionnaire surveys. However, results of such surveys are seldom comparable across countries due to differences in aims, scope, or methodology.This paper is based on the second edition of the E-Survey of Road Users' Attitudes (ESRA), an online survey carried out in 2018, and includes data from more than 35,000 road users across 32 countries. The objective is to present the main results of the ESRA survey regarding the four most important risky driving behaviours in traffic: driving under the influence (alcohol/drugs), speeding, mobile phone use while driving, and fatigued driving. The paper explores several aspects related to these behaviours as car driver, such as the self-declared behaviours, acceptability and risk perception, support for policy measures, and opinions on traffic rules and penalties.Results show that despite the high perception of risk and low acceptability of all the risky driving behaviours analysed, there is still a high percentage of car drivers who engage in risky behaviours in traffic in all the regions analysed. Speeding and the use of a mobile phone while driving were the most frequent self-declared behaviours. On the other hand, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs was the least declared behaviour. Most respondents support policy measures to restrict risky behaviour in traffic and believe that traffic rules are not being checked regularly enough, and should be stricter.The ESRA survey proved to be a valuable source of information to understand the causes underlying road traffic crashes. It offers a unique database and provides policy makers and researchers with valuable insights into public perception of road safety.     

Factors affecting severity of motorcycle accidents on Thailand's arterial roads: Multiple correspondence analysis and ordered logistics regression approaches

Thailand was classified as a middle-income country and ranked second highest in terms of road traffic fatality rate in the world in 2015. By 2018, this ranking went up to ninth in world which may be because of various earnest safety policies implementation, supporting road safety research and establishing a road safety directing center. However, crash fatality rate has considerably remained high until recent year, indicating a clear need for further related research. Considering severity of the crashes, the majority of fatal crashes involved the motorcycle road user. Therefore, motorcycle crashes are important issues and should be considered to mitigate fatality due to immoderate proportion of motorcycle road user and motorcyclist fatality. This study aims to identify factors that influence the severity of motorcycle accidents on Thailand's arterial roads by employing ordered logistic regression and multiple correspondence analysis. The results demonstrated that although both analyses were relatively different, they provided similar results. Age, road lanes, and helmet wearing were significant factors that influenced the severity of motorcycle accidents. The results could serve as reference for planning strategies or organizing campaigns to reduce and prevent death owing to road traffic accidents, which may enhance the overall image of road traffic safety in Thailand.     

The future of road safety: A worldwide perspective

Estimates by the World Health Organization suggest that, on a yearly basis, road crashes kill 1.25 million people—nearly 3400 road fatalities per day—and injure up to 50 million. Traffic injuries are not equally spread over the world, however; some countries are hit harder than others, and the chance of being killed in a road crash depends on where one lives. Almost 90% of all traffic casualties occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Globally, the number of fatalities per 100,000 population (mortality rate) ranges from less than 3 to almost 40. The rate is less than 9 in high-income countries (HIC) but averages around 20 in LMIC, with the African region demonstrating the highest rate (26.6). While road safety trends have been positive in HIC over the last few decades, trends in LMIC are not telling a positive story: road fatalities are expected to increase to almost 2 million road fatalities per year by 2020.The United Nations has adopted several resolutions on road safety and proposes actions to tackle the global road safety crisis. Considering the current level of road safety to be unacceptable, the UN has taken several initiatives. One effort, the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020, has generated substantial activity around the world over the last couple of years. Furthermore, it is very encouraging that the UN included road safety in the Sustainable Development Goals that it laid out in September 2015. Road safety is part of the public health agenda and the urban development agenda. Measured in “real actions,” however, the responses so far from the overall global community and individual countries do not suggest that we are already on the right track to bringing down the death toll on roads.The future of road safety is uncertain and definitely not the same for all regions of the world. Countries with a mature road safety approach and an ambition to make further progress are expected to move in the direction of a pro-active approach: a Safe System approach. It is reported that many LMIC, meanwhile, are on the brink of designing road safety strategies and implementing action plans. The international community is willing to support LMIC, but LMIC cannot simply copy successful HIC strategies because local circumstances differ. The principles of successful HIC strategies are applicable, but the priorities and action plans should take root in and align with local conditions.     

The association between national culture,road safety performance and support for policy measures

There are considerable differences between countries when it comes to road safety performance, as indicated by the number of road fatalities per 100,000 inhabitants. These discrepancies are strongly associated with differences in wealth and prosperity, as expected, but are also related to national culture. The overall objective of this exploratory study is to identify relationships between national culture, road safety performance and public support for policy measures. Using the revised version of Hofstede's cultural dimensions, we show the strong correlation between national culture and road safety performance, which exists even after controlling for the national level of wealth as measured by the gross national income. Furthermore, by combining the national cultural dimensions with data on 29 countries from the second stage of ESRA, the E-Survey of Road users' Attitudes, this study demonstrates that culture also affects the level of public support for policy measures related to road safety. Specifically, for many measures, the degree of individualism accounts for a considerable part of the statistical variation in the public support for policy measures across countries—except for those measures for which the support is very high in most countries. Possible explanations are given for the seemingly paradoxical finding that countries which witness high resistance to road safety policy measures have nevertheless managed to achieve better road safety performance.     

Using a surrogate safety approach to prioritize hazardous segments in a rural highway in a developing country

Road safety is a global concern particularly in developing countries where some road sections are disproportionately more vulnerable in terms of the frequency and severity of crashes. Other than using historical crash data based reactive approaches, those sections need to be identified proactively, so that mitigation measures can be applied. Moreover, those approaches are sometimes questioned mainly due to data reliability issues in developing countries. The study reported here is aimed at highlighting the applicability of traffic conflict techniques as surrogate safety measures to identify those sections of a rural highway in a developing country, which are most likely at risk. An adapted framework is demonstrated to identify traffic conflicts using combined surrogate indicators acknowledging the limited resources and facilities in developing countries. A new model is put forwarded using a count data modelling approach. Both fixed and random parameters model derivatives have been explored as an alternative methodological approach to relate the factors affecting the number and probability of conflicts. The partial effects of individual independent variables were estimated to gain a better insight of their impact. The results show that the model can predict high risk segments in terms of probability of conflicts as well as safety risk, as well as prioritize road sections according to the likelihood of their safety level. The model provides a less expensive alternative to the collection of historical crash data in order to identify hazardous road locations or black spots on two-lane highways in developing countries.¹     

What affects pedestrian crossing difficulty at urban intersections in a developing country?

In developing countries, road traffic crashes involving pedestrians have become a foremost concern. At present, road safety assessment plans and selection of interventions are primarily restricted to traditional approaches that depend on the investigations of historical crash data. However, in developing countries such as India, the availability, consistency, and accuracy of crash data are major concerns. In contrast, proactive approaches such as studying road users' risk perception have emerged as a substitute method of examining potential risk factors. An individual's risk perception offers vital information on probable crash risk, which may be beneficial in detecting high-risk locations and major causes of crashes. Since the pedestrian fatality risk is not uniform across the urban road network level, it may be expected that pedestrians' perceived risk measured in terms of “crossing difficulty” would also vary across the sites. In this perspective, the present paper establishes a mathematical association between the pedestrians' perceived “crossing difficulty” and actual crashes. The model outcome confirms that pedestrians' perceived crossing difficulty is a good surrogate of fatal pedestrian crashes at the intersection level in Kolkata City, India. Subsequently, to examine the impact of traffic exposures, road infrastructure, land use, spatial factors, and pedestrian-level attributes on pedestrians' “crossing difficulty”; a set of Ordered Logit models are developed. The model outcomes show that high vehicle and pedestrian volume, vehicular speed, absence of designated bus stop, the presence of inaccessible pedestrian crosswalk, on-street parking, lack of signalized control (for both vehicle and pedestrian), inadequate sight distance, land use pattern, slum population, pedestrian-vehicular post encroachment time, waiting time before crossing, road width, and absence of police enforcement at an intersection significantly and positively increase pedestrian's crossing difficulty at urban intersections. To end, the model findings are advantageously utilized to develop a set of countermeasures across 3E's of road safety.     

Motorcycle fatalities in Malaysia

Malaysia has the highest road fatality risk (per 100,000 population) among the ASEAN countries and more than 50% of the road accident fatalities involve motorcyclists. This study has collected and analysed data from the police, government authorities, and national and international research institutes. Only fatality data are used due to the severe underreporting of severe injuries (up to 600%) and slight injuries (up to 1400%). The analysis reveals that the highest numbers of motorcycle fatalities occur in rural locations (61%), on primary roads (62%) and on straight road sections (66%). The majority are riders (89%), 16 to 20 years old (22.5%), and 90% of the motorcycles are privately owned. Of those involved in fatal accidents, 75% of the motorcyclists wear helmets, and 35% do not have proper licences. The highest number of fatalities by type of collision is ‘angular or side’ (27.5%). Although fatal motorcyclist crashes mostly involve ‘passenger cars’ (28%), motorcyclists are responsible for 50% of the collisions either by crashing singly (25%) or with other motorcyclists (25%). While male motorcyclists predominate (94% of fatalities), female motorcyclists aged 31 to 70, possessing ‘no licence’, not wearing helmets and travelling during the day, account for a higher percentage than male motorcyclists. Malaysia must acquire more motorcycle exposure data and establish an injury recording system and database based on hospital-records. To reduce motorcycle fatalities, it first has to understand why young male motorcyclists are prone to fatal crashes in the evenings and on weekends on rural primary roads, especially on straight road sections.     

国外交通安全教育和宣传措施简介

介绍了发达国家在交通安全教育和宣传方面的做法和经验。发达国家道路安全委员会或相关机构,依据本国的道路安全策略制定了详细的道路安全宣传教育策略,在这些宣传策略中,明确了计划实施的宣传举措、宣传重点、责任部门、不同举措对应的目标受众等。为我国的交通安全宣传教育工作提供参考。     

Socio-economic costs of road crashes in middle-income countries: Applying a hybrid approach to Kazakhstan

Information about road crash costs is a valuable input for road safety policy making and it is essential for conducting cost-benefit analysis of road safety interventions. This paper presents a methodology for assessing the socio-economic costs of road crashes as well as an estimate of the volume of these costs in Kazakhstan. Five costs components have been taken into account: medical costs, production loss, human costs, vehicle damage and administrative costs. A hybrid methodological approach has been used, which implies that three different types of methods have been applied to capture all costs: the human capital method (production loss), willingness to pay (human costs) and restitution costs method (other components). Input data were retrieved from existing databases from a variety of road safety stakeholders and other organizations. A household survey was conducted to collect additional information, including the willingness to pay for fatal crash risk reductions. Remaining data gaps have been bridged by using data from other countries. The socio-economic costs of road crashes in Kazakhstan are estimated at $6.8 billion in 2012, which corresponds to 3.3% of GDP. Human costs account for 81% of the total costs, vehicle damage for 11% and production loss for 6%. Administrative and medical costs are relatively very small cost components. More than half of the costs is related to injuries, while fatalities account for about a third of the total costs and property damage only accounts for approximately 10%.     

An international comparative study on driving attitudes and behaviors based on questionnaire surveys

Road traffic crashes (RTCs) are influenced by a driver's awareness and attitude toward road safety, as well as the socio-economic status, infrastructure development level, traffic status, social system, and traffic safety culture of the area to which the driver belongs. In this study, based on the results of a questionnaire survey conducted in seven countries, the characteristics of each country concerning tolerance for traffic violations, dangerous driving, and acceptance for road safety measures were studied. It was suggested that a high tolerance for traffic violations and dangerous driving might affect traffic violations and RTCs in each country. Additionally, to reduce the tolerance for traffic violations and dangerous driving, the promotion of road safety education, especially among young and male drivers, and stricter regulations and enforcement were suggested.     

Macroscopic analysis on the frequency and severity of pedestrian crashes on National Roads in Metro Manila,Philippines

Pedestrians are the most vulnerable road users; thus, understanding the primary factors that lead to pedestrian crashes is a chief concern in road safety. However, owing to the limitations of crash data in developing countries, only a few studies have evaluated the comprehensive characteristics of pedestrian crashes, specifically on different road types. This study attempted to develop pedestrian crash frequency and severity models on national roads by using the road characteristics and built environment parameters, based on the road crash data (2016–2018) that involved pedestrians in Metro Manila, Philippines. Remarkable findings included primary roads, presence of footbridges, road sections with bad surface conditions, and increased fractions of commercial, residential, and industrial roads, which exhibited a greater likelihood of pedestrian crashes. Crashes involving elderly pedestrians, heavier vehicles, late-night hours, fair surface conditions, and open spaces were associated with increased likelihoods of fatal outcomes. Essentially, this study provides a macroscopic perspective in understanding the factors associated with the severity and frequency of pedestrian crashes, and it would aid the authorities in identifying proper countermeasures.     

山区高速公路隧道路段与开放路段的事故影响因素分析

高速公路隧道构造特殊且通行环境复杂,因而通常事故多发。为探究高速公路隧道路段与开放路段事故影响因素和严重程度致因机理的差异,采集沪昆高速邵怀段2011—2016年期间1 537起事故为研究样本;以事故发生路段为响应变量构建逻辑回归模型,解释各种风险因素对事故发生路段倾向性的影响差异;分别针对隧道路段与开放路段建立模型研究事故伤害严重程度的影响因素。建立二元Logit回归模型分析事故的发生倾向性和2类路段的事故严重程度的影响因素;采用随机参数Logit模型以反映异质性条件对参数的影响。统计表明:与疲劳驾驶、未保持安全距离相关的事故发生在隧道路段的概率更高,其事故发生概率分别是开放路段的2.373和2.482倍;与隧道路段事故严重程度正相关的因素包括下坡（坡度2%以上）、夏季和超速行驶,其中下坡（坡度2%以上）段的严重事故发生的概率为上坡（坡度2%以上）的3.397倍,夏季的严重事故发生概率为秋季的3.951倍,超速行驶相关的严重事故发生概率为其他不当驾驶行为的4.242倍;与开放路段事故严重程度正相关的因素包括超速行驶和疲劳驾驶,其中超速行驶相关的严重事故概率是其他不当驾驶行为的2.713倍,疲劳驾驶相关的严重事故概率是其他不当驾驶行为的4.802倍。研究表明,山区高速公路隧道路段与开放路段的事故发生概率及其严重程度的影响因素存在一定的差异性,研究结论可为山区高速公路差异管理方案制定提供依据。      

基于物元分析的道路交通安全评价方法

道路交通安全是一个受人、车辆、道路等多因素制约的综合系统。选取了道路交通安全评价指标,并根据道路交通事故特点及其影响因素确定了定量评价指标体系。针对现有道路交通安全评价方法的不足,基于物元分析方法和可拓法原理,提出了一种可操作性较强的道路交通安全评价方法,并使用该方法对全国道路交通安全状况进行了评价。     

平原区公路衔接点的安全研究

平原区公路衔接点是近年来出现在平原区公路的交通事故多发点之一。在调查几百公里平原区公路的基础上,对平原区公路衔接点的特性进行了分析。公路衔接点由平原区改扩建公路而形成,兼有路段和交叉口的双重特点,有交叉型和过渡型两种形式。以实际调研中遇到的两个典型路段为例,针对该种路段的特性,对其交通事故多发的原因进行了分析,并提出了提高其安全性的措施和建议。交叉型公路衔接点可以采用信号控制和非信号控制两种方案,过渡型公路衔接点可以采用多种工程方法改善其安全特性。     

Did the COVID-19 pandemic influence traffic fatalities in 2020? A presentation of first findings

The year 2020 was an extraordinary year due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This pandemic resulted in lockdowns and confinements globally and emptier streets and roads. Traffic patterns and traffic composition (modal split) changed considerably during the pandemic and as a consequence the number of people killed and injured in road crashes. The aim of this research is to present the number of road fatalities and the fatality rates (fatalities per kilometer driven) in 2020 and to compare these numbers and rates with the previous period (2017–2019), a baseline. An online questionnaire was distributed among the forty countries that are members of the International Safety Data and Analysis Group (IRTAD) in the International Transport Forum and 24 were in a position to submit the requested information before the 1st of June 2021. The questionnaire requested information on the monthly number of fatalities on a national level for four years, (2017–2020) and on kilometres driven. The number of fatalities in 2020 was 17.3% lower in the 24 participating countries compared with the baseline period and the reduction is almost seven times higher than annually in these countries in the period 2010–2019. The reduction took place in spring 2020 and not so much in the remainder of the year. The highest reduction were measured among young (0–17) and elderly people (75 and older), with public transport and on motorways. With the exception of one country, reductions in fatalities have been measured in all countries, however we observe major differences between countries. Regarding fatality rates (fatalities per vehicle kilometer travelled), we also observe major differences between countries and not a stable pattern over 2020 and a remarkable increase in April 2020, the month with the largest fatality reduction. Countries with severe COVID-19 restrictions do not necessarily demonstrate the greatest reductions in road fatalities. It is recommended to carry our further analysis to find explanations for the results and for the differences between the countries.     

Traffic problems in Southeast Asia featuring the case of Cambodia's traffic accidents involving motorcycles

This article provides the background to the special issue by reviewing the status of traffic problems in South East Asian countries, and in particular, the case of Cambodia. The “Make Roads Safe” report by the Commission for Global Road Safety (2011) confirms traffic accidents as the primary cause of youth mortality worldwide. Thus, the United Nations declared the decade from 2011 to 2020 as the “UN Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011-2020”, promoting road safety and to reduce the number of deaths in road accidents by 2020. Furthermore, the “Sustainable Development Goals” adopted in 2015 highlight the important role of sustainable transport in tackling the exclusion of vulnerable groups. On the other hand, the World Health Organization in 2015 indicate an increase in the death rate due to traffic accidents in low-income countries since 2000. Traffic accidents were already recognized as a social problem before the 2000s in countries such as Thailand and the Philippines. At the same time, other ASEAN member states such as Vietnam and Cambodia which have experienced rapid economic growth since the 2000s are now experiencing the seriousness of traffic problems. It is said that 70% of road accidents in Thailand, Cambodia and Laos involve motorcycles and three-wheelers, but despite this situation, the regulatory framework for motorcycles remains undeveloped. In the case of Cambodia, speeding by young people remains the major cause of road deaths and this can be explained by the fact that people can now travel at a higher speed because of road developments but remaining challenges related to underdeveloped traffic legislation, and limited public awareness and knowledge of road safety are overlooked. In 2010, the Cambodian National Road Safety Action Plan 2010–2020 was drafted, aiming to halve the number of deaths in traffic accidents in 2020. However, in reality, the number of road deaths did not decrease to the level anticipated in the action plan until 2016. In this article, the authors emphasize the importance of implementing the “three Es” namely Engineering, Enforcement and Education in developing countries such as Cambodia. In particular, the authors claim that the role of education to increase people's road safety awareness is neglected compared to the other two dimensions and thus, it is highly important to raise people's road safety awareness through education among the young people.     

Using machine leaning techniques for evaluation of motorcycle injury severity

There is a growing interest in the application of the machine learning techniques in predicting the motorcycle crash severity. This is partly due to a progress in autonomous vehicles technology, and machine learning technique, which as a main component of autonomous vehicle could be implemented for traffic safety enhancement. Wyoming's motorcycle crash fatalities constitute a concern since the count of riders being killed in motorcycle crashes in 2014 was 11% of the total road fatalities in the state. The first step of crash reduction could be achieved through identification of contributory factors to crashes. This could be accomplished by using a right model with high accuracy in predicting crashes. Thus, this study adopted random forest, support vector machine, multivariate adaptive regression splines and binary logistic regression techniques to predict the injury severity outcomes of motorcycle crashes. Even though researchers applied all the aforementioned techniques to model motorcycle injury severities, a comparative analysis to assess the predictive power of such modeling frameworks is limited. Hence, this study contributes to the road safety literature by comparing the performance of the discussed techniques. In this study, Wyoming's motorcycle crash injury severities are modeled as functions of the characteristics that give rise to crashes. Before conducting any analyses, feature reduction was used to identify a best number of predictors to be included in the model. Also to have an unbiased estimation of the performance of different machine learning techniques, 5-fold cross-validation was used for model performance evaluation. Two measure, Area under the curve (AUC), and confusion matrix were used to compare different models' performance. The machine learning results indicate that random forest model outperformed the other models with the least misclassification and higher AUC. It was also revealed that a dichotomous response variable, with fatality and incapacitation injury in one category, along with all other categories in another group would result in a lower misclassification rate than a polychotomous response variable. This might result from the nature of motorcycle crashes, lacking a protection compared with passenger cars, preventing machine learning technique to get trained properly. Moreover, the most important variables identified by the random forest model are those related to the operating speed, resentful other party, traffic volume, truck traffic volume, riding under the influence, horizontal curvature, wide roadway with more than two lanes and rider's age.     

Characterizing future crashes on Indian roads using counterfactual simulations of pre-crash vehicle safety technologies

India's national road crash statistics indicate a continuing increase in casualties. Pre-crash safety technologies are effective in high-income countries, but it is unclear how these will perform in India and which crash types will remain after their implementation. The study objective was to predict and characterize the crashes resulting in moderate or more-severe injuries (Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale 2 or above: MAIS2+) that remain on Indian roads after 22 pre-crash safety technologies have been implemented in all cars, heavy vehicles (buses and trucks), and Powered Two-Wheelers (PTW). Two deterministic rulesets (one optimistic and one conservative) were modeled for each of the pre-crash safety technologies. Each rule was designed and tuned to the functionality of one technology. The data were obtained from the Road Accident Sampling System India (RASSI) database. In addition to the effectiveness of each technology alone, the combined effectiveness of all technologies was estimated. Further, the characteristics of those crashes that none of the technologies would have avoided were determined. Rear-end-specific Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB REAR-END) and Electronic Stability Control (ESC) installed in cars and heavy vehicles reduced MAIS2+ crashes the most. Crashes between PTWs and cars were significantly reduced by a rear-end-specific AEB installed in the cars. A pedestrian-specific AEB (AEB-PED) in cars and heavy vehicles was also shown to be effective. The only pre-crash safety technology in PTWs that was included, Antilock Braking Systems (ABS), reduced overall PTW crash involvement, but only reduced PTW-to-pedestrian crashes marginally. The largest proportion of remaining crashes were those that involved PTWs, indicating that PTW safety will remain a concern in future.     

Study on influence of walking experience on traffic safety attitudes and values among foreign residents in Japan

The most vulnerable user in road space is still an ordinary pedestrian even though the top fatalities by traffic mode differ in countries. Thus, prioritizing/protecting vulnerable road users is essential to improve road safety. People's safety perceptions toward vulnerable users are strongly associated with surrounding elements and their own experiences, especially as pedestrians. Therefore the attitude and values toward vulnerable users would vary due to culture and customs related to walking in each country. This study examines how a walking experience change reflects people with diverse backgrounds' traffic safety attitudes by conducting an online questionnaire survey for foreigners living in Japan for five years or less. As a result, 75% of respondents walk more frequently due to increased public transportation usage. For all the respondents, the increase in the walking frequency also drives the shift in the attitude toward vulnerable users and the values regarding travel safety and comfort indirectly intermediated by the shift in attitudes toward walkability, applying structural equation modeling. To focus on the structure of the shift according to nationality, people from Southeast/South Asia, where motorcyclists are the top fatalities in the road space and somehow regarded as vulnerable road users, the increased walking experience contributes significantly to the improvement of awareness of vulnerable road users and to the formation of safety and comfort values. Regarding people from Europe/North America, although their walking frequency increases after coming to Japan, there is a static causal relationship that does not influence their attitude toward walkability or safety and comfort values. Additionally, they already have an attitude of protecting/prioritizing pedestrians and placing more importance on safety and comfort. At the same time, people from Southeast/South lacks the attitude toward pedestrians due to much less frequency of walking in daily life. It suggests that establishing safe and having comfortable pedestrian spaces and public transport in developing countries where traffic infrastructure is at the development stage will encourage people to walk and likely help foster an attitude of placing importance on safety.