Transient switching control strategy from regenerative braking to anti-lock braking with a semi-brake-by-wire system

Regenerative braking is an important technology in improving fuel economy of an electric vehicle (EV). However, additional motor braking will change the dynamic characteristics of the vehicle, leading to braking instability, especially when the anti-lock braking system (ABS) is triggered. In this paper, a novel semi-brake-by-wire system, without the use of a pedal simulator and fail-safe device, is proposed. In order to compensate for the hysteretic characteristics of the designed brake system while ensure braking reliability and fuel economy when the ABS is triggered, a novel switching compensation control strategy using sliding mode control is brought forward. The proposed strategy converts the complex coupling braking process into independent control of hydraulic braking and regenerative braking, through which a balance between braking performance, braking reliability, braking safety and fuel economy is achieved. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy is effective and adaptable in different road conditions while the large wheel slip rate is triggered during a regenerative braking course. The research provides a new possibility of low-cost equipment and better control performance for the regenerative braking in the EV and the hybrid EV.     

Longitudinal wheel slip during ABS braking

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) braking tests with two subcompact passenger cars were performed on dry and wet asphalt, as well as on snow and ice surfaces. The operating conditions of the tyres in terms of wheel slip were evaluated using histograms of the wheel slip data. The results showed different average slip levels for different road surfaces. It was also found that changes in the tyre tread stiffness affected the slip operating range through a modification of the slip value at which the maximum longitudinal force is achieved. Variation of the tyre footprint length through modifications in the inflation pressure affected the slip operating range as well. Differences in the slip distribution between vehicles with different brake controllers were also observed. The changes in slip operating range in turn modified the relative local sliding speeds between the tyre and the road. The results highlight the importance of the ABS controller's ability to adapt to changing slip–force characteristics of tyres and provide estimates of the magnitude of the effects of different tyre and road operating conditions.     

基于模糊控制的车辆弯道防抱制动系统仿真分析

建立了8自由度的非线性汽车弯道行驶整车模型,在此模型基础上,采用模糊控制理论,分别对车速与轮速的变化、车轮载荷转移的变化以及制动器制动力矩的变化进行计算机仿真。仿真结果表明,采用模糊控制可以达到很好的制动控制效果。     

Combined control of a regenerative braking and antilock braking system for hybrid electric vehicles

Most parallel hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) employ both a hydraulic braking system and a regenerative braking system to provide enhanced braking performance and energy regeneration. A new design of a combined braking control strategy (CBCS) is presented in this paper. The design is based on a new method of HEV braking torque distribution that makes the hydraulic braking system work together with the regenerative braking system. The control system meets the requirements of a vehicle longitudinal braking performance and gets more regenerative energy charge back to the battery. In the described system, a logic threshold control strategy (LTCS) is developed to adjust the hydraulic braking torque dynamically, and a fuzzy logic control strategy (FCS) is applied to adjust the regenerative braking torque dynamically. With the control strategy, the hydraulic braking system and the regenerative braking system work synchronously to assure high regenerative efficiency and good braking performance, even on roads with a low adhesion coefficient when emergency braking is required. The proposed braking control strategy is steady and effective, as demonstrated by the experiment and the simulation.     

Slip regulation for anti-lock braking systems using multiple surface sliding controller combined with inertial delay control

In this paper, a multiple surface sliding controller is designed for an anti-lock braking system to maintain the slip ratio at a desired level. Various types of uncertainties coming from unknown road surface conditions, the variations in normal force and the mass of the vehicle are estimated using an uncertainty estimation technique called the inertial delay control and then the estimate is used in the design of the multiple surface sliding controller. The proposed scheme does not require the bounds of uncertainties. The ultimate boundedness of the overall system is proved. The proposed scheme is validated by simulation under various scenarios of road friction, road gradient and vehicle loading followed by experimentation on a laboratory anti-lock braking set-up for different friction conditions.     

Combined emergency braking and turning of articulated heavy vehicles

‘Slip control’ braking has been shown to reduce the emergency stopping distance of an experimental heavy goods vehicle by up to 19%, compared to conventional electronic/anti-lock braking systems (EBS). However, little regard has been given to the impact of slip control braking on the vehicle’s directional dynamics. This paper uses validated computer models to show that slip control could severely degrade directional performance during emergency braking. A modified slip control strategy, ‘attenuated slip demand’ (ASD) control, is proposed in order to rectify this. Results from simulations of vehicle performance are presented for combined braking and cornering manoeuvres with EBS and slip control braking with and without ASD control. The ASD controller enables slip control braking to provide directional performance comparable with conventional EBS while maintaining a substantial stopping distance advantage. The controller is easily tuned to work across a wide range of different operating conditions.     

Analysis of a regenerative braking system for Hybrid Electric Vehicles using an Electro-Mechanical Brake

The regenerative braking system of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is a key technology that can improve fuel efficiency by 20∼50%, depending on motor size. In the regenerative braking system, the electronically controlled brake subsystem that directs the braking forces into four wheels independently is indispensable. This technology is currently found in the Electronic Stability Program (ESP) and in Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC). As braking technologies progress toward brake-by-wire systems, the development of Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) systems will be very important in the improvement of both fuel consumption and vehicle safety. This paper investigates the modeling and simulation of EMB systems for HEVs. The HEV powertrain was modeled to include the internal combustion engine, electric motor, battery and transmission. The performance simulation for the regenerative braking system of the HEV was performed using MATLAB/Simulink. The control performance of the EMB system was evaluated via the simulation of the regenerative braking of the HEV during various driving conditions.     

A practical identifier design of road variations for anti-lock brake system

Emergency brake technologies have always been a major interest of vehicle active safety-related studies. On homogeneous surfaces, traditional anti-lock brake system (ABS) can achieve efficient braking performance and maintain the handling capability as well. However, when road conditions are time variant during the braking process, or different at the bilateral wheels, braking stability performance is likely to be degraded. To address this problem and enhance ABS performances, a practical identifier of road variations is developed in this study. The proposed identifier adopts a statechart-based approach and is hierarchically constructed with a wheel layer and a full vehicle layer identifier. Based on the identification results, modifications are made to a four-phase wheel-behaviour-based ABS controller to enhance its performance. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed identifier in collaborating with the modified ABS controller are examined via simulations and further validated by track tests under various practical braking scenarios.     

Robust control of anti-lock brake system

A robust control algorithm for an anti-lock brake system is proposed. The method used is based on static-state feedback of longitudinal slip and does not involve controller scheduling with changing vehicle speed or road adhesion coefficient estimation. An improvement involving scheduling of longitudinal slip reference with longitudinal acceleration measurement is included. Electromechanical braking actuators are used in simulations, and the algorithm used in this study is shown to have high performance on roads with constant and varying adhesion coefficients, displaying nice robustness properties against large vehicle speed and road adhesion coefficient variations. Guidelines are provided for tuning controller gains to cope with unknown actuator delay and measurement noise.     

Wheel slip control with torque blending using linear and nonlinear model predictive control

Modern hybrid electric vehicles employ electric braking to recuperate energy during deceleration. However, currently anti-lock braking system (ABS) functionality is delivered solely by friction brakes. Hence regenerative braking is typically deactivated at a low deceleration threshold in case high slip develops at the wheels and ABS activation is required. If blending of friction and electric braking can be achieved during ABS events, there would be no need to impose conservative thresholds for deactivation of regenerative braking and the recuperation capacity of the vehicle would increase significantly. In addition, electric actuators are typically significantly faster responding and would deliver better control of wheel slip than friction brakes. In this work we present a control strategy for ABS on a fully electric vehicle with each wheel independently driven by an electric machine and friction brake independently applied at each wheel. In particular we develop linear and nonlinear model predictive control strategies for optimal performance and enforcement of critical control and state constraints. The capability for real-time implementation of these controllers is assessed and their performance is validated in high fidelity simulation.     

汽车防抱制动系统的自寻最优控制

通过分析车轮制动的工作原理，提出了汽车防抱制动系统的自寻最优控制方法。仿真结果表明，在不同的路况下，防抱制动系统的自寻最优控制取得了满意的效果。文中提出的自寻最优控制方法相对以往的控制方法更为简单，更适合于实际应用。     

基于模糊解耦控制的车辆转向制动系统研究

车辆转向系统和制动系统之间存在着很强的速度耦合关系,造成两个系统之间的性能相互影响,使得车辆在转向制动这一工况成了汽车最危险的工况之一。本文结合实际车辆参数建立转向系统的二自由度模型和制动系统的单车轮模型,针对车辆转向制动工况设计了模糊解耦控制器,实现了车辆的转向与制动同时控制。经验证含有模糊解耦控制的车辆转向制动系统具有很好的动态控制效果,并且有很强的鲁棒性和自适应性。     

Vehicle dynamic stability improvements through gain-scheduled steering and braking control

This paper is concerned with the synthesis of a robust gain-scheduled ?_∞ MIMO vehicle dynamic stability controller (VDSC) involving both steering and rear braking actuators. This VDSC aims at improving automotive vehicle yaw stability and lateral performances. The aim of this work is to provide a methodology to synthesise such a controller while taking into account the braking actuator limitations and use the steering actuator only if it is necessary. These objectives are treated in an original way by the synthesis of a parameter-dependent controller built in the LPV framework and by the solution of an LMI problem. The proposed solution is coupled with a local ABS strategy to guarantee slip stability and make the solution complete. Nonlinear time and frequency domain simulations on a complex full vehicle model (which has been validated on a real car), subject to critical driving situations, show the efficiency and robustness of the proposed solution.     

基于多体理论的车辆制动性能的虚拟试验的实现及评价

汽车弯道制动试验是极其危险的,而通过弯道制动过程仿真来研究汽车的制动性能则具有十分重要的意义。在ADAMS-VIEW中建立汽车前悬架、转向系、驱动桥、后悬架及轮胎等模型,并考虑了链接中弹性衬套的影响,建立整车虚拟样机。对转弯制动、直线制动等工况进行仿真,并将试验结果与计算机仿真结果进行了对比分析。对比结果证明整车模型有较高的精度,仿真方法是正确的,具有较好的通用性。     

A model-based traction control strategy non-reliant on wheel slip information

A traction control system (TCS) for two-wheel-drive vehicles can conveniently be realised by means of slip control. Such a TCS is modified in this paper in order to be applicable to four-wheel-drive vehicles and anti-lock braking systems, where slip information is not readily available. A reference vehicle model is used to estimate the vehicle velocity. The reference model is excited by a saw-tooth signal in order to adapt the slip for maximum tyre traction performance. The model-based TCS is made robust to vehicle modelling errors by extending it with (i) a superimposed loop of tyre static curve gradient control or (ii) a robust switching controller based on a bi-directional saw-tooth excitation signal. The proposed traction control strategies are verified by experiments and computer simulations.     

Regenerative braking strategies,vehicle safety and stability control systems: critical use-case proposals

The sustainable development of vehicle propulsion systems that have mainly focused on reduction of fuel consumption (i.e. CO₂ emission) has led, not only to the development of systems connected with combustion processes but also to legislation and testing procedures. In recent years, the low carbon policy has made hybrid vehicles and fully electric vehicles (H/EVs) popular. The main virtue of these propulsion systems is their ability to restore some of the expended energy from kinetic movement, e.g. the braking process. Consequently new research and testing methods for H/EVs are currently being developed. This especially concerns the critical ‘use-cases’ for functionality tests within dynamic events for both virtual simulations, as well as real-time road tests. The use-case for conventional vehicles for numerical simulations and road tests are well established. However, the wide variety of tests and their great number (close to a thousand) creates a need for selection, in the first place, and the creation of critical use-cases suitable for testing H/EVs in both virtual and real-world environments. It is known that a marginal improvement in the regenerative braking ratio can significantly improve the vehicle range and, therefore, the economic cost of its operation. In modern vehicles, vehicle dynamics control systems play the principal role in safety, comfort and economic operation. Unfortunately, however, the existing standard road test scenarios are insufficient for H/EVs. Sector knowledge suggests that there are currently no agreed tests scenarios to fully investigate the effects of brake blending between conventional and regenerative braking as well as the regenerative braking interaction with active driving safety systems (ADSS). The paper presents seven manoeuvres, which are considered to be suitable and highly informative for the development and examination of H/EVs with regenerative braking capability. The critical manoeuvres presented are considered to be appropriate for examination of the regenerative braking mode according to ADSS. The manoeuvres are also important for investigation of regenerative braking system properties/functionalities that are specified by the legal requirements concerning H/EVs braking systems. The last part of this paper shows simulation results for one of the proposed manoeuvres that explicitly shows the usefulness of the manoeuvre.     

某汽车气压制动系统制动反应时间的测试及分析

汽车制动反应时间是汽车制动系统的重要性能参数之一,是影响汽车制动距离的主要因素之一。本文对某汽车气压制动系统进行制动反应时间测试,并分析其制动系统特性。     

Estimation of the vehicle's centre of gravity based on a braking model

A vehicle's centre of gravity (CG) is an important property that affects the vehicle's handing stability, ride comfort and safety. For example, a high CG may lead to a serious traffic accident due to the adverse effects it may have on roll and handling stability. In this paper, we develop a dynamic detection method to obtain vehicle's height that uses a simulation model based on a dynamic analysis during braking. Simulations show that the dynamic detection method is feasible. Experiments with three different vehicles are performed to verify the proposed method. The previously established prediction detection and lifting detection (LD) methods are used for comparison. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method has higher accuracy and efficiency than the LD method. Thus, the proposed method is useful for the vehicle detection.     

Limit braking of a high-performance motorcycle

A mathematical-model-based study of the limit braking of a high-performance motorcycle and rider is described. Front and rear brakes are operable independently. A dry road and high friction are presumed, such that full braking of the front wheel would lead to an overturn or ‘stoppie’ in colloquial parlance. Effective braking needs to maintain some loading on the rear wheel. A planar but otherwise detailed system model is set up and braking strategies for front and rear are devised. Parameters of the braking control schemes are derived with the help of an optimisation process, minimising the final speed in braking from high speed over a fixed time interval. Simulation results are examined critically and the strategy is developed until efficient use of the friction available is made. The nature of optimal braking events is demonstrated. The influences of slipper-clutch torque setting and the rear-tyre target load chosen are shown.     

Vehicle dynamics integrated control for four-wheel-distributed steering and four-wheel-distributed traction/braking systems

In this article, vehicle dynamics integrated control algorithm using an on-line non-linear optimization method is proposed for 4-wheel-distributed steering and 4-wheel-distributed traction/braking systems. The proposed distribution algorithm minimizes work load of each tire, which is controlled to become the same value. The global optimality of the convergent solution of the recursive algorithm can be proved by extension to convex problems. This implies that theoretical limited performance of vehicle dynamics integrated control is clarified. Furthermore, the effect of this vehicle dynamics control for the 4-wheel-distributed steering and 4-wheel-distributed traction/braking systems is demonstrated by simulation to compare with the combination of the various actuators.