Inland waterways—their role and significance in European transport

Summary

1) Western Europe has a navigable waterways‐network of about 19,000 kms. For the coming decades, however, about 40 percent of the length of these waterways has a very limited relevance, because of the small capacity of the barges that can pass along them.

2) Of the different types of barges the majority are the self‐propelled type. The importance of the pull‐towed barges is declining quickly, whereas the push‐towed barges are on the upswing.

3) The relative importance of inland shipping in comparison with rail transport is far from uniform. In The Netherlands inland shipping is dominant. On the other hand, in France, this mode of transport has only 30 percent of the total number of tons transported by inland shipping and railways together.

4) May the relative importance defer, there is a strong resemblance between the types of goods that are transported via the waterways with crude and manufactured minerals as well as building materials ranking high. In general, inland shipping is primarily involved in the transport of basic products and is of vital importance to the functioning of the West‐European economy.

5) The rather complicated legal regime of the waterways in Western Europe is certainly not the only reason why the integration in the transportation sector of the European Communities hardly moves on.

A fundamental discussion about the basic conceptions of the transport policy in the Common Market is unavoidable before real progress can be made. The entrance of the United Kingdom into the European Community may give an opening on this point.

6) Life goes on, with or without transport‐integration. Inland shipping moves forward too, paying for the use of infrastructure or not.

The general trends in transport support the expectation that the relative importance of inland shipping will increase in the coming decades. The increase in size of shipments and transport distances works in favour of this mode of transport. Besides this, inland shipping still has many possibilities to improve its productivity.

7) The future of inland shipping will be found in bulk transport and the transport of general cargo that has a volume per destination that goes far beyond the quantities for which the container or comparable types of transport units are better suited.     

A survey of Hungarian transport policy

Abstract

In its introductory part this article discusses the principles of the transport policy approved in 1968, followed by the reasons behind the advances on this policy approved in 1978.

It then goes on to review the Hungarian transport pattern and organization, including the roles played by the railways, the road transport companies, the state‐owned enterprises as well as cooperatives, urban transport, shipping, air transport, pipelines, and private transport.

In discussing the division of labour (or market sharing) in transport it concludes that passenger transport is increasing slowly, while the proportion of private transport is continuing to rise. A moderate increase is expected in goods transport with a decline in the share of the railways and a rise in that of the other transport branches. This division of labour is being influenced by economic, not administrative, means.

The main target of the advanced transport policy is to shape a transport system which corresponds to socioeconomic requirements. This means that goods transport capacities must be put to more efficient use, which involves improving development, organizational and planning operations. In passenger transport priority must go to public transport while the proportion of private transport must be defined in keeping with demand and economic possibilities.

In the development of the infrastructure and investments, the need to improve energy use and protect the environment must be stressed.

The rest of the article presents the detailed reasoning behind the measures already taken and scheduled to be taken to achieve these main targets.     

Autonomous technologies in short sea shipping: trends,feasibility and implications

ABSTRACT

The maritime industry has been continuously transforming the nature of its business and striving to embrace technology in many aspects. In this context, autonomous technologies have been receiving momentum with a potential to revolutionise the landscape of shipping industry. After conducting a comprehensive literature review on the issues facing by the short sea shipping (SSS) industry, a model is developed to explore the potential savings of removing crew and use of autonomous technologies through a Continuously Unmanned Ship (CUS) that is operated by a Shore Control Centre (SCC). The analysis shows that autonomous technologies are viable to the challenges that the shipping industry is facing in terms of crew costs and skill shortage. To validate this statement, a case study is selected and various scenarios were tested based on relevant operational and financial considerations, including crew arrangement, cargo utilisation levels and shore wage coefficients. The results suggest that the savings occur in demand-uncertain markets and where a network of vessels are operated via a control centre. While autonomous technology use in shipping holds promise, there remain several limitations that this research addresses in terms of implementation, commercial attractiveness, risk profile, legislative, workforce planning and port operations.     

The treatment of traffic in the Dutch environmental outlooks: the role of science in policy making and policy evaluation

The Dutch National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection publishes Environmental Outlooks in which 25‐year projections are made. These Outlooks quantifying the environmental problems, form the scientific basis for Dutch environmental policy. Traffic and transport is one of the main sectors causing environmental problems. The emissions and energy use of all relevant categories (road traffic, non‐road traffic) are based on model simulations with models. This paper describes the main models used.

If present policy is implemented only a minority of the environmental targets will be met.

If a sustainable transport system for the Netherlands means a large reducton in CO₂ emissions and energy use after 2010 a stronger emphasis on both technical and non‐technical measures (such as land‐use planning combined with public transport improvements) for the period until 2010 is needed than proposed in the Second Transport Structure Plan, unless a sustainable energy source becomes available.     

The demand for public transport. part II. supply and demand factors of public transport

Abstract

This two‐part article, concerned with the way public transport ridership is affected by the various relevant factors, is based on the Executive Summary of The Demand for Public Transport (Webster and Bly 1980), the report of the TRRL‐sponsored International Collaborative Study on Factors Affecting Public Transport Patronage. Part I of the article, which was concerned with the social and economic conditions in which public transport operates, showed the importance of the background factors such as income, car ownership and land use on public transport usage: it also indicated how the longer‐term impacts of the more direct demand factors (fares, service levels) often show themselves in changes in car ownership levels, activity patterns (i.e. where people live, work, shop, socialize, etc) and land‐use development.

Part II reviews the current state of knowledge on the effects of changes in fare levels and quality of service and of the introduction of various traffic and transport measures (traffic restraint, bus priority, etc): it outlines current methodology on costing public transport services and draws the supply and demand sides together in a consideration of particular strategies which are at the disposal of the operator, the planner and the policy maker.     

An assessment of the demand for new transport technology in Australia

This paper summarizes the constraints which a technological innovation in transport must satisfy if it is to achieve widespread application. The existing and likely future travel demands in Australia are reviewed, and for certain types of travel it is concluded that existing modes may become unsuitable or unacceptable. In these areas, it is possible that a new transport technology may find application. In all other areas, it is considered that existing modes, or their functional successors, will continue.

Five possible demand areas in which new transport technology may find application are identified. These are as follows:

1) High speed distribution systems may be introduced in Australian CBD's (Central Business Districts) within the next ten years. These may be progressively extended to provide radial public transport services to the CBD. It is also possible that these systems may eventually be extended to provide a dual‐mode capability in inner‐suburban areas as a partial alternative to freeway construction.

2) New town developments which may be introduced in Australia could include various forms of advanced transportation systems.

3) New aviation modes, possibly including short take off and landing aircraft operating from suburban airports may be introduced to cater for inter‐urban travel.

4) A demand‐responsive transport system to cater for the needs of the transport poor in urban areas may find limited application.

5) In the longer term, possibly by the turn of the century, an improved transport system capable of providing door‐to‐door service over the whole of an urban area and operating under a dual‐mode configuration appears to be possible. It probably would emerge from development of an incremental nature and eventually include the installation of a new technology in the then existing freeway and railway reservations in the city.     

Obituary - Professor Michael E. Beesley,CBE

Abstract

The French motorway network is now more than 6 000 km long, whereas it was virtually nonexistent in 1960. This paper aims at identifying and analysing the key factors, and their interplay, in the process of conception, decision and realization which led to such a transformation. We first deal with the network as a whole.

Next, we concentrate on one among the relevant factors: cost‐benefit analysis. More precisely we examine the part it has played as a means of communication and negotiation between the involved public bodies, as well as a device to enhance an image of rationality attached to the decisions made. Finally we consider a specific link, that between Orleans and Clermont‐Ferrand.     

Role of transport in rural development in Africa

Rural Africa is starved of transport services. The transport routes run towards the export enclaves and the coast.

The political, social and developmental rural transport benefits are discussed. Rural transport will help (i) integrate the country and ease its governance; (ii) widen markets; (iii) induce increased agricultural output, through new technologies, reduced transport costs, etc. The transport cost savings should be passed on to rural firms and producers. The paper warns against their accruing only to middlemen — agricultural parastatals inclusive, thereby stifling the benefits to production. This could happen under some forms of pan‐territorial pricing. Negative aspects of road development, e.g. the substitution of local goods by imports, increased migration and noise, are noted.

The place and role of project appraisal in rural road planning is acknowledged. The broad‐based development packages approach associated with Integrated Rural Development Projects has, despite its attractions, some pitfalls. It favours well established villages and ignores distribution benefits within villages.

Project appraisal can be used to justify socially uneconomic transport developments. However, rural road investment projects with immediate negative returns are unlikely to be funded. Given clear priorities, short of elaborate cost/benefit analysis, obvious road investments choices can be made by the local community. Greater public accountability of transport planners and peoples’ participation in determining rural transport needs and priorities is emphasized. Increased rural road maintenance especially through self‐help schemes and increased use of traditional modes of transport, e.g. walking, animal and water transport, is recommended.     

What transportation modeling needs from a GIS: a conceptual framework

Both the geographic information system (GIS) and transportation modeling environments have seen continually developing analytic concepts and techniques. However, these developments have seldom resulted in the integration of GISs and transportation models. This paper explores the potential inherent in merging of these environments through a systematic investigation of the fundamental basis of integration. To do this, the traditional four step transportation modeling process is extended to include input and output steps. We then define functional components for GIS data handling — data management, manipulation, and analysis. The steps of modeling are matched against the list of GIS data handling functions within a matrix‐based framework. GIS functions that enhance a land‐use based urban transportation modeling process are then categorized. Conclusions are drawn and directions for future developments are discussed.     

Shipping Lines and Logistics

Abstract

It has been acknowledged that logistics is a driving force that shapes the integration of the transport chain. This paper argues that while the liner shipping industry exhibits increased horizontal integration, its vertical integration remains limited. A clear distinction is drawn between freight logistics, container logistics and vessel logistics. Freight logistics is defined as part of the supply chain process, the focus of which is the goods being transported. The purpose of container logistics is to optimize the movements of the containers themselves, an operation that is directly related to vessel logistics which is concerned with maximizing vessel utilization. The paper demonstrates that shipping lines have to find the correct balance between these three types of logistics. Their interest in vertical integration is primarily because the management of container logistics provides direct support to vessel logistics. Their involvement in freight logistics remains unclear and uncertain.     

Implementing Road User Charging: The Lessons Learnt from Hong Kong,Cambridge and Central London

Abstract

This paper studies the possibility of increasing shipping of fruit and vegetables from Almería (southeast of Spain) to Port Vendres‐Perpignan (southeast of France). Almería is one of the areas of vegetables production largest in the world and Perpignan is one of the most important customers of Almería. After analysing the potential volume of shipping, we estimate a mode choice model which allows us to study the sensitivity of final clients (horticultural operators) to future change in the variables which condition the choice between transport by sea or by land. This will also help us to calculate the market share of each system as a function of foreseeable change in the variables.     

Transport bottlenecks and Tanzania's economic problems

Abstract

The paper discusses Tanzania's transport problems in the context of the prevailing acute economic crisis. It looks at the development of the transport system, especially the rail and road network, from the German days to the new Chinese‐built Tanzania‐Zambia Railway. The East‐West orientation of the major parallel rail lines and roads reflects the dependency of the economy on export‐import trade. A major challenge to the transport system is the haulage of agricultural products, mainly for export but also for the internal market, not to mention the haulage of imported commodities.

The provision and utilization of transport services is discussed in the context of the historical, and institutional setting of the road haulage industry, particularly its public and private sector configurations. Due to scarcity of foreign exchange, both sectors, especially the private, are starved of vehicles and spare parts.

The operation of ocean and lake shipping services and Air Tanzania are discussed. It is recommended that the latter should concentrate on essential domestic services plus some limited regional services. External financing of transport projects and its implications are also considered.

It is concluded that despite the break‐up of the East African transport system, the Tanzanian transport system, although shaky, has avoided major breakdowns and in some cases, especially in trade, has provided the foundation for at least medium‐term improvements. More attention is recommended to organizational problems of track use by freight and passenger carriers and to making the best use of existing facilities.     

Modelling car trip generations for UK residential developments using data from TRICS

Abstract

This paper models trip generation for a cross-section of residential developments around the UK. Consistent with recent literature, the empirical model tests whether trip making patterns for residential developments are independent of car ownership and finds that trip generation is dependent upon car ownership socio-economic factors and site-specific characteristics, in particular land-zone type (e.g. town centre, out of town, etc.). However, public transport services are not found to have a significant relationship with trip generation; consequently, a policy implication of the results is that increasing bus services to residential developments is not associated with a reduction in generated trips.     

Deregulation of inter‐city coach services in Britain

Public transport in Britain has traditionally operated under conditions of regulation. The 1930 Road Traffic Act imposed controls upon the quantity and quality of transport regulations, with an abolition of the quantity controls associated with inter‐city coach services. The principal objectives of the Act were to eliminate restriction upon entry to the market and to promote competition between coach operators.

This paper is based on research which was undertaken to establish the impact of the 1980 Transport Act upon express (inter‐city) coach services in Britain. The effects of the legislation are examined in relation to the experience of various coach operators, British Rail, and the inter‐city traveller. This provides evidence of the way in which the supply of, and demand for, public transport behaves in a competitive, deregulated environment. It is shown that at least in net terms, the consumer has enjoyed short‐term benefits. Greater uncertainty surrounds the long‐term situation. The main competition has been confined to the principal trunk routes and has taken place between the state‐owned undertaking of National Express and British Rail. The outcome of deregulation for the private sector has been disappointing.

The paper identified similarities which exist between inter‐city and local public transport services. In this context, the lessons derived from express deregulation are employed to suggest likely developments in the deregulation of stage carriage (local) services in Britain.     

Use and Effects of Advanced Traveller Information Services (ATIS): A Review of the Literature

Abstract

Rapid technological developments in the field of personal communication services probe visions of a next generation in Advanced Traveller Information Services (ATIS). These technological developments provoke a renewed interest in the use and effect of such next‐generation ATIS among academia as well as practitioners. To understand better the potential use and effects of such next‐generation ATIS, a thorough review is warranted of contemporary conceptual ideas and empirical findings on the use of travel information (services) and their effects on travellers’ choices. This paper presents such a review and integrates behavioural determinants such as the role of decision strategies with manifest determinants such as trip contexts and socio‐economic variables into a coherent framework of information acquisition and its effect on travellers’ perceptions.     

Transport planning in Hungary: a case study of Pécs

This review emerged from an opportunity provided in 1988 to the author to study the process of Hungarian transport planning in general, and that of the major regional city of Pécs in particular.

It begins by outlining the difficulties of obtaining detailed information on transport policy‐making and planning in Eastern Europe, and then goes on to analyse the situation in Hungary as a whole since the early 1960s. The specific situation in Pécs is then discussed in relation to national transport planning, with detailed case studies drawn from problems on the local and regional road network, the growth in car ownership and usage, the development of local and inter‐regional rail services, the provision of adequate local bus services, and the growth of local taxi services.

The problems stemming from State intervention and planning control in local transport are emphasized, as are the increasingly difficult issues of the Hungarian economy in constraining public investment. The paper concludes with a discussion of the relationship of the problems of Pécs with those of urban areas elsewhere in Europe, and emphasizes the particular difficulties faced by East European planners in the future.     

Economic and service comparison of conventional bus and automated transit—a case study

Three origin‐destination matrices of inter‐zonal person trips for a section of the Los Angeles metropolitan region are analyzed using principal component analysis. The matrices represent total person trips, journey‐to‐work trips, and shopping trips. This allows for the identification of a number of sub‐regional travel fields or functional regions within the area. The composition of and interrelationships between these fields and the spatial coincidence of fields defined for different travel purposes are compared with existing and proposed public transit facilities.     

Transport reviews prize

Bombay, the commercial capital of India, is suffering from traffic thrombosis. Bombay used to be an attractive city some three decades ago and was commonly referred to as ‘Bombay the Beautiful’. The picture is now, however, the opposite extreme.

The way Bombay has grown, an underground railway is no doubt justified. Unfortunately, the economy may not be able to afford it for many years to come. Low cost measures have therefore to be adopted like (a) development of land use with a view to controlling the traffic demand itself; (b) discouraging further growth in and around the existing congested central business district; (c) establishment of a counter‐magnet; (d) conversion of the mono‐centric pattern to a poly‐nucleated structure; (e) better pedestrian facilities; (f) intermediate public transport; (g) traffic management measures to maximize available road capacities; (h) bus priority measures; (i) creating an east‐west axis for activities to relieve the present north‐south axis.

This would form the core of transport strategy. Capital intensive rail projects will face severe shortage of funds. An additional road/rail link has also been suggested to the mainland. The congestion in Bombay can be relieved if the master plan is prepared for an integrated system. Traffic and town planning must go hand in hand with priority to traffic planning.     

The Greening of Ports: A Comparison of Port Management Tools Used by Leading Ports in Asia and Europe

Abstract

From the policy and management perspective, this study aims to investigate the port management tools that port/public authorities have at their disposal and then to analyse to what extent the tools are used to enforce or encourage green port development at functional activities of port operations and development. We conduct an exploratory and comparative review based on two axes: on the one hand, the range of tools available to port authorities (pricing, monitoring and measuring, market access control and environmental standard regulation) and on the other hand, the functional activities in ports (shipping traffic, cargo handling and storage operations, intermodal connection, industrial activities, and port expansion). The situations in the leading ports in Asia and Europe, namely Singapore, Shanghai, Antwerp and Rotterdam are studied and compared, whereby the policies' effectiveness is discussed accordingly. Findings show that the ports are particularly mature in exercising environmental standard regulations which reveals that the enforcement approach is more prevalent. The most focused functional activity is shipping traffic which reflects that the ports are driven by the International Maritime Organisation. The respective port authorities in Antwerp and Rotterdam have a higher level of influence on devising green port policy in comparison to the two Asian ports.     

Network models in traffic management and control

Abstract

The context for network modelling in traffic management and control is described in terms of the current area‐wide nature of traffic management and the range of objectives to which it can contribute. Representation of a road system and traffic management measures in terms of nodes and links and parameters associated with them is described. It is shown that the pattern of traffic has to be represented not only in terms of flows on links of the network but also in terms of numbers of movements per unit time between points of entry to and points of exit from the area being modelled. In modelling so far, these numbers of movements are regarded as given, but the routes taken are estimated by traffic assignment. Models can so far be used for comparison of a range of given schemes and for optimization of traffic control within a scheme. Variation over time is a central feature of the modelling, and this requires the use of time‐dependent queueing theory, and the specification of numbers of movements for a succession of periods of between 10 and 30 minutes. Theoretical approaches to the resulting problems of modelling and optimization are discussed, and the ways in which these are supplemented by heuristic methods in currently available models is described. Some requirements‐for further research are outlined.