Models of the Relationship between Transport and Land‐use: A Review

Abstract

A two‐way interaction between transport and land‐use has been one of the central research topics of transport studies. Thus, it is not surprising that there have been numerous approaches taken to investigate this reciprocal relationship. This paper critically examines the existing literature to see how effectively the current models represent this mutual interaction. This examination process intends to form a prototype reference that compares and contrasts the advantages and disadvantages of the various models. This undertaking is dealt with based on theoretical, methodological and operational characteristics of a respective model. Some conclusions and suggestions are also drawn.     

Development and Impact of the Modern High‐speed Train: A Review

Abstract

The inauguration of the Shinkansen high‐speed train service between Tokyo and Osaka, Japan, at 210 kph maximum operating speed some 40 years ago marked the comeback of the train as an important passenger mode of transport. Since then high‐speed train (HST) services have been introduced in many countries and are planned in many more, and the train has once more become the dominant mode of transport on many routes. This review summarizes the different elements of HST operation with the aim of characterizing HST operation and putting in context its impact in terms of what it is best designed for and what it can deliver. The review concludes that the HST is best designed to substitute conventional railway services on routes where much higher capacity is required and to reduce travel time, further improving the railway service, also against other modes, therefore leading to mode substitution. However, the high investment in HST infrastructure could not be justified based on its economic development benefits since these are not certain. Finally, the following definition for HST services is suggested: high capacity and frequency railway services achieving an average speed of over 200 kph.     

Middle‐class Travel Patterns,Predispositions and Attitudes,and Present‐day Transport Policy in Bangkok,Thailand

Abstract

Middle‐class expansion and new consumption patterns have increasingly become an important focus of studies of the development and change in newly industrialized and middle‐income‐developing East and South East Asian countries. However, there is still a dearth of studies in the literature particularly focusing on middle‐class travel patterns, predispositions and transport policy preferences. Nor have the implications of these factors on current transport and land development policy been examined. The present exploratory study addresses this gap by examining three cases in Bangkok, Thailand, which in recent decades witnessed dramatic middle‐class expansion, an increase in private motor vehicle population, and spatial diffusion of middle‐class residences into lower‐density zones in the suburbs. By mainly employing a survey method of data‐gathering and quantitative research analysis, the paper discusses the following findings: (1) that middle‐class travel behaviour is characterized by a high dependence on private motor vehicle travel and ‘inward commuting’; (2) that middle‐class preferences for transport mode and attitudes about remedial policy options are generally protective of their members’ car‐dependence and ownership; and (3) that present policy measures of the Thai government on Bangkok transport perfectly fit and support exclusively middle‐ and upper‐class predispositions and stakes in mobility. These findings in a developing country city basically follow a similar profile to be found in middle‐class‐dominant transport patterns and urban form in a number of North American cities. This paper further argues that in a developing country city such as Bangkok, where marked social differentiation and the combined population of poor and low‐income classes still comprise almost half of the urban social landscape despite an expanding middle‐class, an adequate and good public transport system that also meets the former’s need for efficient mobility is an imperative.     

Modelling Complex Activity‐Travel Scheduling Decisions: Procedure for the Simultaneous Estimation of Activity Generation and Duration Functions

Abstract

Activity generation is a key factor in individual's choices of trip frequency and trip purpose. This paper describes the results of an experiment conducted to estimate functions of several temporal factors on individuals' propensity to schedule a given activity on a given day. The theory on which the experimental design is based states that the probability of scheduling an activity is a complex and continuous function of how long ago the activity was lastly performed, the duration constraints for the activity and the amount of available time in the activity schedule of the day considered. Aurora, an existing model of activity scheduling, assumes S‐shaped utility functions for the history as well as the duration functions, whereas most time‐use studies assume monotonically decreasing marginal utilities. The stated‐choice experiment involves a range of flexible activities and a large sample of individuals to measure the utility effects of a set of carefully chosen levels for the factors and tests these specific assumptions. The results suggest that the amount of discretionary time on a day has no significant impact on the scheduling decisions provided that enough time is available for the activity. The effects of other factors are as expected and show diminishing marginal utilities. We find mixed evidence for an initial phase of increasing marginal returns as assumed in an S‐shaped function.     

A network‐based model for estimating the market share of a new high‐speed rail system

This paper presents a novel application of static traffic assignment methods, but with a variable time value, for estimating the market share of high‐speed rail (HSR) in the northwest–southeast (NW–SE) corridor of Korea currently served by air, conventional rail and highway modes. The proposed model employs a time–space network structure to capture the interrelations among competing transportation modes, and to reflect their supply‐ and demand‐side constraints as well as interactions through properly formulated link‐node structures. The embedded cost function for each network link offers the flexibility for incorporating all associated factors, such as travel time and fare, in the model computation, and enables the use of a distribution rather than a constant to represent the time–value variation among all transportation mode users. To capture the value‐of‐time (VOT) of tripmakers along the target corridor realistically, this study has developed a calibration method with aggregate demand information and key system performance data from the NW–SE corridor.     

Driving Forces behind the Growth of Per‐capita Car Driving Distance in the UK, 1970–2000

Abstract

Although per‐capita car trip distance (measured in passenger‐km) and car driving distance (measured in vehicle‐km) in the UK have kept increasing, their growth rates slowed considerably in the 1990s when compared with the 1970s and 1980s. The paper investigates the main driving forces behind the changes in car trip and car driving distances, and it examines the determining factors for the slow down of growth in the 1990s on the basis of the analysis of data from the National Travel Survey (1975/76, 1989/91, 1992/94, 1995/97 and 1999/2001). In particular, it emphasizes the significance of changes in car ownership levels as a key driving force and attempts to separate this ‘car ownership effect’ from other effects. The log‐mean Divisia index decomposition method is applied to measure the relative contribution of each effect. Separate analyses are undertaken according to trip purpose. Other underlying causes, such as changes in fuel price and road capacity, are also examined.     

Does the choice model method and/or the data matter?

The opportunity to have seven data sets associated with a stated choice experiment that are very similar in content and design is rare, and provides an opportunity to look in detail at the empirical evidence within and between each data set in the context of a range of discrete choice estimation methods, from multinomial logit to latent class to scale multinomial logit to mixed logit, and the most general model, generalized mixed multinomial logit that accounts for preference and scale heterogeneity. Given the problems associated with data from different countries and time periods, we estimate separate models for each data set, obtaining values of travel time savings that are then updated post estimation to a common dollar for comparative purposes. We also pooled all data sets for a scaled MNL model, treating each data set as a set of three separate utility expressions, but linked to the other data sets through scale heterogeneity. This is not behaviourally appropriate with MNL, latent class or mixed logit. The main question investigated is whether there exists greater synergy in the willingness to pay evidence within model form across data sets compared to across model forms within data sets. The evidence suggests that there is a relatively greater convergence of evidence across the choice models, with the exception of generalized mixed logit, after controlling for data set differences; and there is strong evidence to suggest that differences between data sets do matter.     

The “Ubernomics” of ridesourcing: the myths and the reality

ABSTRACT

This paper looks at the economics of ridesourcing (or app-based ride-hailing) with a particular focus on the US. It brings together the rather dispersed literature on the subject focusing on the economic characteristics of the underlying industry and sets this within the broader context of transportation economics. In particular, it sorts out the realities of ridesourcing from some of myths that were perpetrated in its early days and, in many cases, still persist. It considers some of the empirical evidence that has emerged regarding the key parameters that determine the way Uber and the like operate, and the welfare implications of this, together with comments on some of the regulatory reactions to the new transportation platform. It concludes by suggesting some ways in which recent developments in economic could move forward our understanding of the industry as technologies and markets change.     

Transportation and land-use preferences and residents’ neighborhood choices: the sufficiency of compact development in the Atlanta region

This paper analyzes the transportation and land-use preference and actual neighborhood choices of a sample of 1,455 residents of metro Atlanta. We develop a stated-preference scale on which desires for neighborhood type are gauged, from preferences for low-density, auto-oriented environments to desires for compact, walkable, and transit-oriented neighborhoods. This scale is then related to desires for change in one’s own neighborhood characteristics after a hypothetical move. If all neighborhood preferences were equally likely to be satisfied, then neighborhood preferences would not be correlated with a desire for change. By contrast, in the current study, stronger preferences for a more walkable environment are associated with greater desire for change in one’s neighborhood characteristics. This suggests an undersupply of compact, walkable, and transit-friendly neighborhood types relative to current demand.

A Multiple Criteria Decision‐Making Approach for Prioritizing Accident Hotspots in the Absence of Crash Data

Abstract

In an efficient transportation system, traffic safety is an important issue and it is influenced by many factors. In a country like Iran, until now safety improvements are mainly concentrated on road engineering activities, without much attention for vehicle technology or driving behaviour. One important aspect of road safety engineering activities is the so‐called treatment of hotspots or dangerous accident locations. Until recently, accident hotspots were identified and remedied by the esxperts’ personal judgements and a handful of statistics without taking into account other important factors such as geometric and traffic conditions of the road network. This paper therefore aims to define and identify the criteria for accident hotspots, then giving a value to each criterion in order to develop a model to prioritize accident hotspots when traffic accident data is not available. To do this, the ‘Delphi’ method has been adopted and a prioritization model is produced by the use of a ‘Multiple Criteria Decision‐Making’ method. The procedure is illustrated on a collection of 20 road sections in Iran. In addition, the model is validated against an existing database of road sections containing safe locations and hotspots. Finally, a sensitivity analysis is carried out on the proposed method.     

Examining the Impacts of Residential Self‐Selection on Travel Behaviour: A Focus on Empirical Findings

Abstract

Numerous studies have found that suburban residents drive more and walk less than residents in traditional neighbourhoods. What is less well understood is the extent to which the observed patterns of travel behaviour can be attributed to the residential built environment (BE) itself, as opposed to attitude‐induced residential self‐selection. To date, most studies addressing this self‐selection issue fall into nine methodological categories: direct questioning, statistical control, instrumental variables, sample selection, propensity score, joint discrete choice models, structural equations models, mutually dependent discrete choice models and longitudinal designs. This paper reviews 38 empirical studies using these approaches. Virtually all of the studies reviewed found a statistically significant influence of the BE remaining after self‐selection was accounted for. However, the practical importance of that influence was seldom assessed. Although time and resource limitations are recognized, we recommend usage of longitudinal structural equations modelling with control groups, a design which is strong with respect to all causality requisites.     

Strategic flexibility in shipping: an examination of a sector of the short‐sea ferry market

In the generally more dynamic modern business environment new modes of strategic planning have emerged, in which a premium is attached to the maintenance of flexibility in resource deployment. This paper discusses the principles involved, and considers the capacity of a segment of the sea ferry industry to exploit strategic flexibility as a means of coping with a rapidly changing environment. Potential sources of flexibility are examined in the paper and possible constraints identified. For the sector in question, it appears that strategic flexibility has been unduly limited by the nature of the resources employed, by prevailing corporate values, and by a tendency to respond to environmental uncertainty by short‐term reactions rather than long‐term measures. The general conclusion of the paper is that the sector examined, and possibly the industry as a whole, is strategically weak.     

Motorcycle-based adolescents’ travel behaviour during the school morning commute and the effect of intra-household interaction on departure time and mode choice

We hypothesise that intra-household interaction influences home departure time and mode choice for the morning commute. In Indonesia, over 71% of vehicles on the road are motorcycles. This fact increases the significance of household interaction in influencing transport mode choice since the simplicity of the motorcycle allows a great degree of versatility in regard to multiple family member transport. To emphasise this point, our study focuses on the unique travel behaviour of adolescents during the school morning commute which, due to the use of the motorcycle, is a combination of the travel behaviour of accompanied children and escorting adults. Our study discovers that adolescents are likely to shift their school arrival time very early or close to the designated starting time in relation to motorcycle-based parental escort to school. In regard to mode choice, adolescent students prefer to be escorted by motorcycle rather than take public transport.     

Explaining the “immigrant effect” on auto use: the influences of neighborhoods and preferences

Since immigrants will account for most urban growth in the United States for the foreseeable future, better understanding their travel patterns is a critical task for transportation and land use planners. Immigrants initially travel in personal vehicles far less than the US-born, even when controlling for demographics, but their reliance on autos increases the longer they live in the US. Cultural or habitual differences, followed by assimilation to auto use, could partly explain this pattern; and it may also be partly due to changes in locations and characteristics of home and work neighborhoods. Previous studies have rarely investigated non-work travel, and have not tested workplace land use measures, compared the relative influences of enclave and home neighborhood measures, or looked at the role of culturally-bound residential preferences or motivations for migration. This study relies on a unique and rich dataset consisting of a survey of US residents born in South Asia, Latin America, and the US, joined to spatial information in a GIS. I find that the home built environment is the most consistently influential factor in explaining the lower auto use of both recent and settled Latin American immigrants. Indian immigrants use autos less than would be expected given their home and work neighborhoods. There is little evidence that either ethnic enclaves, or cultural differences, play a role in lower auto use by immigrants. These results suggest there may be a role for neighborhood built environment policies in delaying immigrant assimilation to auto use in the US.     

Experimental and Numerical Study on the Behaviors of Deep-Buried Water-Storage and Drainage Shield Tunnels北大核心CSCD

Deep-buried water-storage and drainage shield tunnels, which are different from road and subway shield tunnels in terms of computation theory, construction technology and operation maintenance, would bear high inner water pressure and large earth pressure. In view of the change of the bearing mode for the lining structure of water-storage and drainage shield tunnels, a full-ring test and numerical analysis are carried out to study the influence of inner water pressure, staggered joint assembly and bolt installation types on the behaviors of water-storage and drainage shield tunnels. The results show that the deformation of the straight-jointed water-storage and drainage shield tunnel varies greatly from the state of empty water to that of full water; and the vertical and horizontal convergence deformations of the tunnel with inner water pressure of 0.6 MPa are 2.2 times and 3.2 times of that without inner water pressure, respectively. The convergence deformation, and the maximum joint opening and bolt tension of stagger-jointed lining structure decrease by 15%-25% and 25%- 40%, respectively, compared with that of the straight-jointed water-storage and drainage shield tunnel. The bolts at the segmental joints will yield because of the increase of inner water pressure and the first occurrence of bolt yield phenomenon is located near the position on the lining structure which is under the action of maximum negative bending moment; because the failure of shield tunnel is always caused by the yield of joint bolts, this position is the weak point for the deep-buried water-storage and drainage shield tunnel. For the water-storage and drainage shield tunnel based on the connection with double rows of bolts, the bolts near the outer arc surface of segmental joints in the area of 90 degree in the vault and arch bottom can be removed; the bolts near the inner arc surface of the segmental joints within the 90 degree of the haunch must be installed, otherwise, the tensile force of the bolts at the segmental joint near the maximum negative bending moment will increase by 5%-14%. © 2018, Editorial Office of "Modern Tunnelling Technology". All right reserved.     

Application of Chinese Characters in the Design and Construction of the Badaling Great Wall Station of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou High-Speed Railway北大核心CSCD

The new Badaling tunnel is the longest tunnel on the under-construction Beijing-Zhangjiakou highspeedrailway, with the Badaling Great Wall station to be built in the tunnel. This station, which is under the Badaling Great Wall historic site, is the world’s largest underground high-speed railway station with the most complicated structure and the largest overburden and excavation area. It is therefore a representative project for China’s highspeed railway development strategy, supporting infrastructure facilities for the Beijing Horticultural Expo 2019 and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, and it is important that it be of high quality and completed safely. In the de-sign and construction of the station, the glyphs of the Chinese characters of "中",”国”,”人”and”品”are used, re-spectively, along the station route, in the rescue and evacuation mode, auxiliary adit and partial excavation, which is a way to successfully integrate the art of Chinese characters into tunnel engineering. © 2018, Editorial Office of "Modern Tunnelling Technology". All right reserved.     

Introducing Willingness‐to‐pay for Noise Changes into Transport Appraisal: An Application of Benefit Transfer

Abstract

Numerous research studies have elicited willingness‐to‐pay values for transport‐related noise. However, in many industrialized countries including the UK, noise costs and benefits are still not incorporated into appraisals for most transport projects and policy changes. This paper describes the actions recently taken in the UK to address this issue, comprising: primary research based on the city of Birmingham; an international review of willingness‐to‐pay evidence; the development of values using benefit transfers over time and locations; and integration with appraisal methods. Amongst the main findings are: that the willingness‐to‐pay estimates derived for the UK are broadly comparable with those used in appraisal elsewhere in Europe; that there is a case for a lower threshold at 45 dB(A)Leq,18h rather than the more conventional 55 dB(A); and that values per dB(A) increase with the noise level above this threshold. There are significant issues over the valuation of rail versus road noise, the neglect of non‐residential noise and the valuation of high noise levels in different countries. Conclusions are drawn regarding the feasibility of noise valuation based on benefit transfers in the UK and elsewhere, and future research needs in this field are discussed.     

Study on the Stress and Deformation Behaviors of a Deep and Irregular Foundation Pit as the Shield Launching Shaft in a Sea Reclaimed Cofferdam北大核心CSCD

With the development of the tunnel technology in China, the shield tunnel will become an important way to build the Sea-crossing channel. Taking the current largest diameter Shantou Bay shield tunnel in China as the engineering background, this paper introduces the challenges faced by the construction of the shield launching shaft in the reclamation cofferdam: e.g. deep, irregular excavation, deep silt layer and great influence of the seawater. Based on the practical conditions, a top-down construction technique of large ring beam considering two working conditions of foundation pit excavation and shield launching is proposed. Based on three-dimensional finite element analysis and field measurement, the stress characteristics and soil deformation of foundation pit are studied. The results show that the top-down construction technique of large ring beam can effectively control the deformation of the foundation pit and save construction time. © 2018, Editorial Office of "Modern Tunnelling Technology". All right reserved.     

‘Unconventional modes’ of transport in the United Kingdom—A review of types and the policy context

‘Unconventional modes’ (UCMs) of public transport have been emerging steadily and unobtrusively in the United Kingdom over the last two decades, largely originating in rural areas. Since 1977, there has been a quickening expansion of numbers and diversification of types in the light of governments' increasing concern with the cost of supporting ‘conventional’ public transport and the search for cheaper alternatives. An essential part of this review is to establish a definition of ‘unconventional’ as an aid to classifying the wide and increasing diversity of modes, and clarifying terminology. UCMs overlap with ‘community transport,’ which caters for the mobility needs of elderly and handicapped persons. In the context of bus service deregulation in 1985/6, the UCM sector is expected to expand although its precise future role is unclear.