Tragedy of the San Francisco bay commons

Abstract

Although the early efforts to save San Francisco Bay in the 1960's provided the role model for protection of California's 1100 mile ocean coastline, neither Proposition 20 of 1972 nor the California Coastal Act of 1976 provided any benefits to San Francisco Bay. One result is that the Bay is locked into its urban, shoreline‐use dominated plan of 1969 while every other estuary and coastal wetland in California receives much stronger protection of its resources. Furthermore, due to the complexity of California's water laws, there is no instream flow protection for receiving waters such as San Francisco Bay. This is particularly critical considering that 70% of the Bay's freshwater inflow has been diverted. The Bay's present decline as the largest and most important estuary on the West Coast, as well as its possible death as an estuary, may be irreversible. The problem requires the immediate attention of engineering, scientific, economic and legal disciplines if San Francisco Bay is to be saved.     

CZM in California: Successes and Challenges Ahead

California has a forty-year history of successful coastal zone management. The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, the California Coastal Commission, and the State Coastal Conservancy have protected and made accessible hundreds of miles of shoreline. While each agency has played a critical role, this article focuses on the Coastal Commission. Implementing the California Coastal Act, the Coastal Commission has partnered with local government, other agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and the public to concentrate new development in already developed areas, and much of the rural coastal zone looks as it did in 1972. The Commission has protected and expanded public shoreline access through its regulatory actions. Using strong ecological science the Commission has protected a wide variety of sensitive habitats and wetlands. And under the authority of the Coastal Zone Management Act, the Commission has reviewed thousands of federal projects to assure that they are consistent with the Coastal Act. Challenges continue, though, including population growth, sea-level rise, and inadequate funding to update local coastal land use plans to address new issues, such as climate change adaptation. New investment is needed at the national, state, and local level to continue the success of the California program.     

Coastal zone management from an administrative perspective: A case study of the san francisco bay conservation and development commission

Abstract

Competent administration of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (CZMA) must proceed on an informed understanding of the organization styles and capacities of agencies presently dealing with similar problems. One such agency, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission (BCDC), the forerunner of the California model of coastal management, is analyzed here to shed light on where we are headed and what we can expect administratively as the CZMA becomes an operation reality.

The major administrative insights offered fall into the areas of: (1) effectiveness assessment‐the BCDC's success is systematically defined and measured, and a discussion of what effectiveness evaluation implies in the area of coastal resource management is undertaken; (2) understanding organizational success—the BCDC's administrative style is analyzed in terms of the synergy which has been created between its organizational structure and decision‐making process; and (3) implications of agency success—which of the BCDC's lessons are most valuable and how these can be applied to other situations are shown.     

Measuring Public Access to the Shoreline: The Boat-Based Offset Survey Method

As cities redevelop underutilized waterfronts, opportunities exist to promote public access to the shoreline. However, planning for access is hampered by a lack of reliable data on how people utilize a specific shoreline. The boat-based offset transect survey (B-BOTS) method allows researchers to accurately record, map, and analyze shoreline access. This article discusses the use of B-BOTS along the northern part Narragansett Bay, RI. Using B-BOTS, on 52 randomly selected days over a two-season period, researchers developed a geodatabase that included the position of all shoreline users and the activity in which they were engaging. Using this geodatabase, the article demonstrates that the amount and type of shoreline use varied dramatically throughout the study area and varied in ways that would not have been predictable using conventional sources of data. The article also demonstrates that the availability of parking not only influenced the amount of shoreline use, but also the manner in which different user types distributed themselves along the shore. The article discusses the importance of such findings for developing plans for waterfront redevelopment and public access.     

Pushing the CZMA Envelope: California: The First State to Litigate the New Federal Law

As noted often by the former California Coastal Commission Executive Director Peter Douglas, the history of how the California coast was saved is a great repository of untold stories. Although the Commission has had a dramatic and tangible impact on California's coastal geography, the public is largely unaware of many of its early accomplishments. This article begins to chronicle the rich stories of California's coastal legacy by telling the story of how the Commission utilized the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) to prevent Southern Pacific Railroad from developing a seven-mile stretch of the Monterey Bay shoreline. In so doing, the Commission helped make possible the creation of the Monterey Peninsula Recreational Trail, a public bicycle and pedestrian path that has grown to sixteen miles in length and runs through the heart of John Steinbeck's world-famous Cannery Row. The controversy also was the subject of the first judicial challenge of a state's federal authority under the CZMA and precluded private commercial and residential development that would have dramatically altered the urban form of the Monterey Peninsula. It is important to tell the story as the Coastal Commission's role in this remarkable accomplishment has been almost completely overlooked.     

基于投资强度概念的沿海工业岸线开发准入标准研究

以集约利用工业岸线资源为目标,提出沿海工业岸线的投资强度概念.根据岸线功能、后方陆域平面尺度和沿海地区工业投资相协调的原则,提出基于投资强度概念的沿海工业岸线开发准入标准,并应用于某临港工业岸线开发项目.实践证明,引入工业岸线投资强度的概念,对于沿海地区有效地规划和利用稀缺的岸线资源、发展集约型临港工业,具有一定的指导...     

Water quality and shellfish management in tillamook bay,Oregon

The contamination of shellfish by pathogenic bacteria and viruses is a concern of shellfish producers, distributors, and consumers. To address these water quality concerns, the National Shellfish Sanitation Program has classified shellfish growing waters as approved, conditionally approved, or prohibited. The Tillamook estuary is one of Oregon's primary shellfish harvest areas. Degradation of water quality in Tillamook Bay has been linked to oyster bed closures, declines in salmonid populations, and decreases in recreational use of estuarine resources. In this study, water quality concerns related to shellfish management are addressed by examining the patterns of fecal coliform bacteria (FCB) concentration in Tillamook Bay. A oneway analysis of variance was used to compare log‐transformed FCB concentrations in prohibited, restricted, and conditional shellfish management areas. We found (I) a difference in Tillamook Bay water quality between all three areas and (2) a change in FCB concentrations through time in each management area. Since the designation of shellfish management areas affects the economy and public health, monitoring practices need to be reevaluated in order to draw more refined conclusions about water quality trends in Tillamook Bay.     

Preface and Acknowledgments

Abstract

The term “mitigation”; has been used in connection with habitat losses attributable to federal water projects as early as the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934. Most of the current requirements to mitigate habitat losses associated with water development projects apply to wetlands, as they are biologically productive and have been destroyed at an increasing rate during recent years by developers seeking prime land in the coastal zone. A case study of the Port of Coos Bay and the City of North Bend, Oregon, provides an actual experience of estuarine mitigation in a dredging project and an airport fill. The case was developed as part of a larger curriculum research study for seaport management. This article is primarily written as a case with a brief introduction and discussion of mitigation requirements, followed by the text of the case and ending with a series of hypotheses for further research.     

跨海通道影响下大连湾水域规划调整方案比选

介绍了受大连湾跨海交通工程影响而开展的大连湾水域规划调整方案比选研究过程。针对大连湾内水域通航环境,分析了港口及相关产业的发展趋势,综合预测了各港区通航代表船型。以大连湾跨海交通工程北桥南隧线位方案为边界条件,根据大连湾水域条件和通航需求,通过引入“具有一定保证率的通航代表船长”的概念,合理确定了跨海通道桥梁与锚地、航道边界的安全距离。给出3种调整方案并进行比选分析,提出了工程后续实施过程中需注意的问题。     

Coastal land management in New Zealand

Abstract

Although New Zealand has a population of 3 million and a coastline of about 10,000 miles there are already heavy pressures on some parts of it. Historically, subdivisions of less than 10 acres require the setting aside of a one‐chain esplanade reserve as part of a general reserve contribution. Some national and regional parks also include significant areas of coast. Recently the Lands and Survey Department has commenced a detailed study of the coastline. Another very recent development is the requirement of an Environmental Impact Report for all major government works. The Waitemata Harbour has been the subject of a detailed study and the reports are now beginning to appear. There has been a heavy demand for shallow bays and estuaries for sanitary land fill, as well as for dredge fill. The main pressure on the coast at present is for holiday cottage sites and some legislative changes may be necessary. In the future new marinas will probably be considered particularly in relation to the extent they provide for the general public rather than a selected few. Industry is only just beginning to make an impact upon the coast. New power stations, natural gas or thermonuclear, are likely to be located on the coastline and this would bring some environmental problems. Recently, it has been argued that to ensure wise use of the coastline there should be national, rather than local or regional, control by a specially appointed Coastal Commission.     

Assessing economic activity in coastal areas: A shift‐share approach

Abstract

An essential aspect of economic analysis associated with planning efforts is identifying the composition of existing economic activity and understanding historical trends in economic change. The shift‐share model is a useful and inexpensive tool for this purpose. Shift‐share analysis evaluates changes in local economic activities relative to changes in a reference area (usually the state or nation). Economic change is separated into a reference area component, an industry mix component, and a local share component. These measure, respectively, the effect on the local economy due to changes in the reference area, factors specific to the local mix of industries, and the changing competitive position of the local area relative to the reference area.

A shift‐share analysis of Florida's coastal counties reveals that all grew much faster over the 1965–1975 period than did the national economy. This rapid growth is primarily a result of a net shift of economic activity toward the study area relative to the nation. However, a few coastal counties did exhibit a mix of slow‐growing industries. Specific industry results for Florida counties at the eighty‐industry level reveal that many industries showed significant shifts toward Florida's coastal counties. The performance of individual industries in the coastal counties generally exceeded that of the same industries in noncoastal counties.     

Impacts of Terrestrial and Shoreline Stressors on Eelgrass in Puget Sound: An Expert Elicitation

We used expert elicitation to examine potential responses of eelgrass to several restoration strategies in Puget Sound. Restoration strategies included shoreline armor removal and modification, removal and modification of overwater structures, and efforts to improve water clarity via reductions in anthropogenic nutrient and sediment loadings. Expert responses indicated a general belief that reducing stressors would increase eelgrass cover; however, responses varied greatly among stressors. Our analyses revealed that removal of overwater structures, nutrient loading and shoreline armoring will have significantly larger effects on eelgrass recovery than would removal of sediment loading, with removal of overwater structures having the largest effect. We then used a probabilistic model to estimate what actions, singularly or in combination, could yield a large increase in eelgrass cover. Reducing single stressors could, in theory, result in recovery of eelgrass in Puget Sound; however, the magnitude of actions required would be so great that it is likely not practical. In contrast, we identified combinations of smaller reductions of stressors that could achieve significant eelgrass recovery. For example, a 40% reduction in overwater structures, combined with 20% reductions in shoreline armor, and nutrient and sediment loadings, was predicted to be one of the more feasible combinations of actions for meeting the target. The importance of eelgrass to Puget requires prompt input of scientific advice, and this work fills an important knowledge gap in the face of rapidly approaching legislative deadlines. While coded expert opinion of the sort we use here is a weak substitute for data, our work clarifies the current extent of scientific uncertainty that can guide management action in the near term and scientific research in the long term.     

Assessment of coastal zone issues in the Republic of Korea

Abstract

The physical characteristics of Korea have had a profound impact on the uses of the coastal zone that have, in turn, been determined by and reinforced the nation's economic development strategy. While coastal zone management in many developed economies is more heavily oriented toward environmental protection and the resolution of user conflicts, policies for coastal zone management in Korea have emphasized the role of coastal space and other resources for economic development and industrial needs. Increasing demand for land reclamation to provide ever‐increasing industrial sites and human settlements, traditional and future needs of the fishery, and concern for the environment have led to a vast array of competition and, finally, often to conflicts. The basic pattern of coastal zone use in Korea has changed from the linear expansion of coastal zone to integrated coastal uses. An increased number of critical coastal zone issues and interactions was reflected in the creation of new governance that dealt with coastal zone resources and environment.     

An Assessment of Lake-Level Fluctuations on Beach and Shoreline Changes

Using data collected from May 1978 to November 1996, this article assesses the effects of fluctuating water levels on the beach and shoreline at the Northeast Beach, Point Pelee, Lake Erie, Canada. To compare the serial dynamics of lake levels with net shoreline positional changes and beach net sediment flux, the data are transformed to standard scores to deal with the differences in the units and in the scale associated with each variable. The results demonstrate that over the 18-year period, fluctuating lake levels are associated with shifts in shoreline position and the development of various aggradational and degradational states at the beach. A sustained rapid rise in lake levels will initiate an erosional sequence which will persist even with declining water levels. With a persistent decline in water levels the beach and shoreline will adjust very gradually from unstable, erosional states to an aggradational state. Other results emphasize that those beach sectors directly governed by artificial structures suffered disproportionately higher erosion during high-water levels. Coastal managers must, therefore, be cognizant of the fact that shore protection devices must be carefully designed in order to be effective against the influence of fluctuating lake levels.     

基于船体直接强度评估的可靠性分析（英文）

A method of reliability analysis based on a direct strength calculation employing the von Mises stress failure criterion is presented here. The short term strain distributions of ship hull structural components are identified through the statistical analysis of the wave-induced strain history and the long term distributions by the weighted summation of the short term strain distributions. The wave-induced long term strain distribution is combined with the still water strain. The extreme strain distribution of the response strain is obtained by statistical analysis of the combined strains. The limit state function of the reliability analysis is based on the von Mises stress failure criterion, including the related uncertainties due to the quality of the material and model uncertainty. The reliability index is calculated using FORM and sensitivity analysis of each variable that has effects on the reliability is also discussed.     

Shorelines management: The French approach

Although France does not have a specific law dealing with shorelines management, various policies and policy instruments exist which enable a certain amount of control over the shoreline development process. This article discusses the various institutional arrangements in France as they relate to (1) problems of marine pollution, (2) the control of land‐based pressures for shoreline use and development, and (3) the creation of a new shorelands trust. The role of existing institutions, such as the six river basin agencies, is also discussed.     

基于信息熵理论的灰色系统法在岸线评价中的应用

选定岸线前沿水深条件、岸线稳定性、岸线前沿水域宽度以及岸线后方陆域宽度作为岸线评价的主要指标。在确定评价指标的权重时应用了信息熵理论,随后将灰色系统法引入到岸线评价中,利用MATLAB编程计算得出6条岸线的关联度,关联度越大表明岸线与最优岸线越相关,最终得出各岸线与最优岸线的相关性排序,并对评价结果进行了对比分析,对岸线的开发利用提出合理性建议。     

Public access to the shoreline: The Rhode Island example

Abstract

Competition for the use of our nation's shoreline has produced a thorough analysis of means to accommodate the increased demands of the public for access to the shore. The issue of public access in Rhode Island is considered at three levels. First, Rhode Island cases involving common law doctrines, such as the public trust, dedication, and so forth, are examined for their relevance. Second, the effect of the federal government in Rhode Island through the Coastal Zone Management Act and its amendments is studied. Finally, two types of state management programs are considered—a Commission for the Discovery of Rights of Way and the Coastal Resources Management Council.     

Altruism,selfishness and coastal resources

Abstract

The basis for coastal zone management in the United States is established in legislation. In comparison, Canadian federal and provincial governments have adopted a piecemeal approach for managing a variety of concerns examined here: water quality, ecological protection, public access, aesthetics, natural hazards, and water dependency. As a result of this approach, which is characterized by a minimum of federal, provincial, and interjurisdictional coordination, the British Columbia coastal zone is showing signs of stress. For example, major shellfish harvesting areas are being lost to water pollution; ecologically sensitive habitats are being consumed by urban, commercial, and industrial expansion; recreation and tourism opportunities are being impaired by clear cutting and other inappropriate developments; and infrastructure is allowed in flood and erosion‐prone areas. Recommendations to improve the approach to coastal management in British Columbia include a variety of innovations. New federal and provincial policies, legislation, institutions, and experimentation with local and regional integrated resource planning are required to better govern the coastal zone. Increased support for existing agencies, public involvement, and access to information as well as more common use of environmental impact studies are needed to justify proposed coastal developments.     

大连太平湾近岸海域环境承载力综合评价研究

海域水环境质量与承载力是生态环境保护与区域经济发展的重要前提条件。针对大连太平湾近岸海域,文章采用集对分析方法、人工神经网络方法和云理论方法,以研究海域32个站位的COD、无机氮、磷酸盐和石油类4个污染因子为承载力评价指标,重点分析太平湾近岸海域的水环境质量和承载力状况;并以不同时期实测资料,分析了太平湾港区工程建设与环境质量间的相互关系,以期为区域经济社会发展和生态环境保护提供基础支撑。