The Sefton Coast Management Scheme: Project and Process

Abstract

The Sefton Coast Management Scheme in northwest England uses an area‐based project to achieve coordinated land management. It is founded on the ‘'Heritage Coast'’ model pioneered by the Countryside Commission where a ‘"Project Officer”; is employed to promote the Scheme and translate the aims into practical achievement. The Sefton Coast is described and a summary of British coastal planning policy precedes a detailed analysis of the Scheme. The Scheme is assessed with reference to practical management work, its success in competition for scarce financial resources, and the involvement of volunteers. It is established that the Project Officer is crucial to the success of the Scheme and that area‐based management can best be achieved through the local government planning process. Coastal planning needs now to be reviewed at national level to develop a policy for the whole coast using the experience of projects such as the Sefton Coast Management Scheme.     

Shoreline development controls and public access to the ocean's edge

Abstract

The San Diego Coast Regional Commission, faced with the responsibility of approving, approving with conditions, or denying permits for development proposed along the scenic coastal bluffs of San Diego county, has adopted guidelines for bluff‐top development which assures retention of scenic vistas and provision of public access while permitting private landowners “reasonable use”; of their property. These unique guidelines delineate certain environmental and aesthetic parameters within which bluff‐top development may take place. Portions of the guidelines are presented, and some of the factors leading to their formulation and adoption are discussed.     

Integrating visual management into the coastal zone planning process: The Massachusetts experience

Abstract

This paper concerns the limitations on integrating visual management into the coastal zone planning process as exemplified by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, a state with a strong tradition of “home rule”; and a CZM implementation program based on a “networking”; of existing state authorities. The implications of the Massachusetts experience are that: (a) management of esthetic resources at the state level continues to be much less of a priority than management of ecological resources such as wetlands or floodplains; (b) visual management has yet to engender a strongly supportive constituency beyond that concerned with historic preservation; (c) project review focusing on visual impacts may be a more appropriate activity for local rather than state government; and (d) the technical aspects of visual management or impact assessment are far more advanced than their political acceptability. Political realities, together with the decision that implementation of the program should be based on a networking of existing authorities, thus determined the degree to which visual management could be incorporated into the state's program. As a result, the program's principal instruments of visual management became a strengthening of existing programs such as Wild and Scenic Rivers, reliance on wetland protection statutes to indirectly protect natural scenic values, and the use of the federal consistency provisions of the Coastal Zone Management Act to foster focused growth patterns through provision of publicly funded infrastructures. Esthetically oriented project review, with the exception of potential impacts on historic sites, was left to the discretion of local government, and a technical assistance program was created to provide funding or professional skills to communities interested in developing their own esthetic controls or design review processes. Maine, Rhode Island, and other New England states have followed a similar course.     

Conservation and development in Oregon's coastal zone

Abstract

Coastal zone management in Oregon is based on the state's general land‐use law. This body of law is designed to deal with population increase, urbanization, and preservation of agricultural land, as well as with other problems throughout the state. Early planning and policy recommendations for the coast were in the hands of a commission having predominantly local membership. This commission produced an extensive series of studies, policies, and recommendations which were assembled as a proposed management tool for natural resources. Staff of the commission was then absorbed into the state land‐management agency, which developed final goals and guidelines for compliance with the Coastal Zone Management Act. Adoption of the coastal goals in December 1976 has triggered deadlines for local government compliance within the coastal zone. The management program is now undergoing federal review.     

Spatial aspects of shoreline management in Puget sound reconsidered

Abstract

Shoreline management in the state of Washington attempts to provide opportunities for both urban and rural interests to express themselves. Local governments have wide latitude in determining the spatial patterns which they deem desirable. The state provides general guidelines to insure that local governments adhere to the policy of the act. On shores designated as shores of state‐wide significance the state has reserved the right to protect state interests over local interests. Since the Washington State Shoreline Management Act generally covers only 200 ft inland from the ordinary high tide line, and each local government develops its own management program, it is doubtful that nodal or spread development on a regional level in Puget Sound can be meaningfully addressed under its provisions. There may, however, be evidence of nucleation or spread patterns at the local level.     

A Local Transboundary Approach to the Governance of Mediterranean Coastal Borderlands

Abstract

Coastal borderlands are subjected to particular socioeconomic, political and environmental dynamics in Europe and worldwide. The presence of the international boundary in these areas poses challenges in the process of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). The aim of this paper is to explore the existence, characteristics and the role that local cross-border cooperation plays in transboundary coastal zone management as well as the resulting potentialities of local endogenous development for improving the management and governance of the tourism sector, coastal development, fisheries and marine protected areas in the Albera Marítima (Northwestern Mediterranean). The applied methods included document review, statistical information and semi-structured interviews. The research shows that local agents are not capable of developing a stable cross-border network due to persisting lack of trust, weak joint strategic vision and high competitiveness in sectors like fishery and tourism. Based on particularly interesting initiatives occurred in Albera Marítima and other successful experiences in Mediterranean coastal borderlands, a proposal has been made to implement several measures, including a transboundary integrated coastal plan, the joint observatory of fishery resources and a scientific network platform. For the aforementioned issues, the study contributes to the ICZM literature by providing a new perspective on local transboundary cooperation.     

Inclusionary housing in the California coastal zone

Abstract

This article evaluates the performance of the California Coastal Commission's inclusionary housing program by examining: (1) the scope of the housing regulations, (2) initial permit decisions on residential projects, (3) the disposition of these permits overtime, and (4) the composition of completed projects and a best‐case projection of possible project completions. Using a case study of Southern California, factors affecting program success are discussed, including the effects of the various regulations, the availability of project subsidies, local government permit policies, and housing market fluctuations. The authors conclude that such state regulatory programs cannot be expected to succeed in urbanized coastal areas without incentives for developers and augmented state agency authority, superseding local land use controls.     

Oil and gas development in a coastal landscape: Visual preferences and management implications

Abstract

This study examines the relationships of four general landscape characteristics to viewer preference for a coastal landscape including oil and gas development. Landscape management possibilities that address these characteristics are apparent naturalness, compatibility of development with its setting, and ephemeral characteristics, including tidiness.

Forty residents of and visitors to a Louisiana Gulf Coast island were interviewed. They were asked to describe and rate the attractiveness of local views. Three hundred and ninety‐three views containing a total of 99 features were described. A content analysis determined which of the 99 features were present in each view. Then factor analysis was performed on the feature presence classifications to suggest viewtypes. The 26 factors, or viewtypes, resulting were related to view ratings in a regression analysis.

Results suggest that, while natural‐appearing coastal landscapes are attractive, some developed landscapes may also be attractive. Compatibility, nighttime viewing, and tidiness enhance the attractiveness of developed landscapes. Where these characteristics become part of the design and maintenance program for oil and gas facilities, viewer preference may increase.     

OCS development: A community's acceptance of risk

Abstract

Port O'Connor, Texas, a small unincorporated community on the Gulf Coast, was studied to assess the residents’ attitudes toward the potential growth related to Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) development. In contrast to attitudes of residents in many East Coast communities, residents of Port O'Connor do not feel threatened by OCS‐related growth. Rather, the risks they perceive result from increased tourism. They are well familiar with the social costs of tourism. They are less familiar with the social risks involved in increased OCS activities.

In terms of coastal zone management policy, this study highlights the importance of attending to the concerns of local residents for their social structure and way of life. The social risks imposed by increased OCS activity must be considered important factors in plans for OCS development.     

Marina inventory and berthing supply projections: Mississippi's Gulf Coast

Abstract

The location as well as pace of marina development is a major issue in current coastal zone management. The supply and demand for marinas providing certain services in specific locations are growing and must be met. At the same time the environmental integrity of the coastal zone must be maintained against the many possible impacts of marina development. Compounding these problems from the view of both the developer and coastal zone manager is the absence of necessary data and accepted methodologies for estimating future supply needs for marine berthing. This paper describes a multi‐focii approach to the establishment of an information base and marina supply projections for the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Data on existing marina types, services, and facilities are obtained via fieldwork; future marina slip supply needs are estimated using a combination of several techniques and data sources. The study serves two purposes. First, it initiates the basis for improved management of marina development on Mississippi's Gulf Coast. Second, on a more theoretical level, it stimulates research toward developing and validating supply and demand projection techniques for marinas.     

Integrated Coastal Management in Philippine Local Governance: Evolution and Benefits

In 1991 the Philippine government shifted many coastal management responsibilities to local governments and fostered increased local participation in the management of coastal resources. In their delivery of integrated coastal management (ICM) as a basic service, many local governments have achieved increasing public awareness of coastal resource management (CRM) issues. Continuing challenges are financial sustainability, inadequate capacities, weak law enforcement, and lack of integrated and collaborative efforts. To address these challenges, a CRM certification system was developed to improve strategies and promote incentives for local governments to support ICM. This system is being applied by an increasing number of local governments to guide the development and implementation of ICM in their jurisdiction. The CRM benchmarks required for a local government to achieve the first level of certification are: budget allocated, CRM related organizations formed and active, CRM plan developed and adopted, shoreline management initiated and two or more best practices implemented. Implementation is providing tangible benefits to communities through enhanced fisheries production associated with MPAs, revenues from user fees and enhanced community pride through learning exchanges and involvement in decisions, among others.     

Identifying Suitable Sites for Macroalgae Cultivation on the Swedish West Coast

Special attention has been paid to sustainable macroalgae cultivation in Europe. The question on where suitable cultivation areas lie, without conflicting with current marine socio-economic activities and respecting the environment, remains a great challenge. Considering 13 criteria critical to seaweed farming such as depth, shipping traffic, and distance to ports, this paper aimed to identify suitable and sustainable offshore areas on the West Coast of Sweden for the cultivation of the Sugar Kelp, Saccharina latissima. An integrated approach with the tools geographic information systems (GIS) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA) was used to aggregate the criteria by means of Boolean and weighted linear combination (WLC) techniques. The Boolean method singled out 544?km² as suitable, whereas the WLC method indicated 475?km² as highly suitable. Both techniques complement each other in finding optimal sites. Furthermore, the integrated models excelled in providing an overview for effective spatial decision-making that fosters sustainable development of macroalgae cultivations within marine and coastal systems.

• Highlights

• To the authors’ knowledge no study on seaweed aquaculture site selection has been conducted using such a range of criteria with the purpose of including sustainability aspects within a comparative GIS-MCDA.

• The large areas identified on the West Coast of Sweden as suitable highlight the potential of this new industry and the complexity of associated marine spatial planning.

• Boolean and weighted linear combination methods were applied and compared, providing valuable insights in the selection of methods for spatial decision-making support. These insights should support a more sustainable development of macroalgae cultivation in the region, as well as a more resilient marine spatial planning process for blue growth strategies.

     

Community Perceptions of a World Heritage Nomination Process: The Ningaloo Coast Region of Western Australia

The remote Ningaloo Coast region, the location of Australia's largest fringing coral reef, was designated as World Heritage (WH) in 2011 based on its outstanding natural values. In the past, the WH nomination process predominantly involved experts and state officials. More recently, local community involvement has become a required part of the process, representing a move toward participatory governance that can potentially influence WH designation. Understanding community perceptions of the WH nomination process provides insights into the consequences of community involvement. Interviews were conducted with key local community members involved in the Ningaloo Coast WH nomination. Interviews focused on the perceptions and experience of the nomination process and local meanings of WH designation. Results indicated that while there was support for WH designation, the nomination process was seen as controversial. Community involvement was dominated by local political and social concerns, mistrust, misinformation, and perceived unfairness. Concerns were influenced by past and current government actions and decision-making in the region. The article identifies some challenges associated with local community involvement in a WH nomination process. These challenges raise questions about participatory governance and how local community's engage in the WH nomination process for coastal regions identified by experts as globally significant.     

Affordable housing in California's Coastal Zone: A tale of state authority vs. local autonomy

Abstract

This article examines the efforts of the California Coastal Commission to pursue simultaneously goals of environmental quality and affordable housing in the same state‐imposed regulatory program. The authors conclude that the Commission made substantial progress toward realizing both ends. However, the coastal body fell victim to its own successes, and housing was removed from its jurisdiction. As the Coastal Commission exercised its authority, opposition grew in strength and numbers. Key opponents included local government, which lost land‐use regulatory power to the Commission, the building industry, whose relationships with coastal localities were disrupted, and local property owners, whose land was restricted to uses other than the most profitable one.     

Ontario cottager associations and shoreline management

Abstract

Growth in the number of cottager, or lake property owner, associations in Ontario has been rapid. Cottager associations attempt to address directly, and influence government decision‐making on, issues affecting shoreline management and the recreational experience of cottagers. However, associations infrequently resolve these issues to their satisfaction. A questionnaire and case study show that the nature of the issue, human and financial resources available to the association, and the nature of the decision‐making process affect the extent to which associations influence outcomes. Unreceptiveness of government officials to association participation in decision‐making and confused agency jurisdictions over shoreline resources appear to inhibit association effectiveness. Concerns about the status of shoreline management in Ontario and public participation in decision‐making are raised.     

Decentralized Coastal Zone Management in Malaysia and Indonesia: A Comparative Perspective 1

Transferring decision-making process from central to local government and enhancing the role of local communities in managing coastal zones is an increasing commitment by governments in Southeast Asia. This article analyzes decentralized coastal zone management in two neighboring countries, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Federal system in Malaysia is argued to be able to influence more decentralized coastal zone management and to promote community-based management approaches. Meanwhile, the large diversity of coastal resources and communities combined with a still as yet tested decentralization policy in Indonesia is argued to bring more challenges in implementing the decentralization and community-based approaches in coastal zones. The lessons learned in this study provide insight in how far decentralized coastal zone management has taken place in Malaysia and Indonesia. The significant differences in the pattern of coastal zone management in these two countries are discussed in detail. This study recognizes that co-management and community-based approaches can be appropriate in dealing with coastal zone management. This comparative perspective is important to the development of a bigger picture of sustainable coastal zone management processes and cross-regional knowledge-sharing in Southeast Asia.     

Adapting to Catch Shares: Perspectives of West Coast Groundfish Trawl Participants

Abstract

Catch share programs are used in fisheries management to meet goals such as species recovery, overcapacity reduction, and economic efficiency. Anticipated impacts include fleet consolidation, infrastructure reduction, and social disruption within communities. The Pacific Coast Groundfish Fishery Social Study (PCGFSS) aims to understand social changes related to the recently implemented West Coast Groundfish Trawl Catch Share Program. In this article, we use a subset of PCGFSS data to explore the ways remaining fishery participants have thus far adapted to catch shares. While some vessels have left the fishery, we found that many participants are adapting to this catch shares program despite challenges. Quota leasing strategies, fishery diversification, gear innovation, and community quota funds are some of the tools participants are using to continue operating under the catch shares program. These early challenges and adaptations to the catch share program are worthy of continued tracking, as researchers, managers, and fishing communities, would benefit by considering first-hand perspectives of the on-the-ground realities of harvesting groundfish in the rationalized fishery.     

Implementation Challenges for Quota Set-Asides: Policy Analysis to Inform Fisheries Management Decision-Making

Abstract

The implementation of catch share programs can have socio-economic and ecological benefits, yet may also change the distribution of those benefits within a fishery or across communities. Quota set-asides can mitigate the impacts of these changes. During the implementation of the West Coast groundfish trawl catch share program, 10% of the quota was set aside to be used toward five goals in the Adaptive Management Program (AMP). This quota was to serve as an insurance policy during the substantial changes that were expected to occur under the new management regime. However, this program has not yet been fully developed, in part due to delayed decision-making and the controversial nature of allocating quota. Here, we examine and score six policy options for the AMP against four criteria: effectiveness, flexibility, political viability, and implementability. While each of the options has strengths and weaknesses, those that ranked highly include allocating quota pounds (QP) via the status quo and via auction. Our results highlight the drawbacks of delaying contentious decisions, where uncertainty for participants can constrain operational decisions and subsequent economic gains. We demonstrate the utility of this decision-making framework for evaluating tradeoffs between alternatives, especially for a program with multiple, competing objectives.     

Managing community acceptance of major industrial projects

Abstract

In some cases, the major risk encountered by an industry seeking to site a facility is that of community acceptance. Without community acceptance of a proposed project, construction can be delayed, taxes can be prohibitive, and operations can be prevented through the opposition and influence of local groups. This paper describes the community acceptance risk, the traditional industrial approach to countering local opposition, and a positive approach to achieving community acceptance. This positive approach entails careful site selection; affirmative management of the community acceptance problem, including explicit planning of the community acceptance effort, assignment of staff with specific responsibilities to implement plans, and a budget for mitigating the impacts of the project on the community; acquisition of sufficient land to buffer unavoidable impacts of the project; a carefully formed corporate policy on the public release of information concerning the project; and constructive participation in state and local government policy development.     

Factors Influencing the Participation of Local Governmental Officials in the National Estuary Program

Participation by local governmental officials is not given the same attention in the literature as that of citizens, publics, technical experts, or stakeholders. Yet, local governments are often a keystone to successfully implementing and enforcing coastal management policies. Qualitative analysis of open-ended interviews with local government officials from three national estuary program applications in New England revealed factors related to nine themes that shaped decisions to participate or not. Three categories of factors help to clarify the different types of influence agencies have over local government officials' decisions about whether or not to participate: factors associated with the character of individuals, with the context, and with the process. This taxonomy helps to clarify the kinds of opportunities available to project leadership to influence local government officials toward participating in regional coastal management processes. An important finding is that project staff should listen and learn about the concerns of local government officials and then create a process that accommodates and overcomes barriers to their participation.