Ballast Water Risk Indication for the North Sea

The ballast water from ships carries marine organisms that have invasive potential. The International Maritime Organization Ballast Water Management Convention (2004) requires ballast water exchange or ballast water management (BWM) systems either onboard or ashore. Ships can be exempted on the basis of risk assessment, when exclusively sailing between specific ports or in an enclosed area. In reply to our questionnaire, the shipping sector argues that the North Sea is ecologically homogeneous and exemptions could therefore be granted. This paper proposes that the North Sea area is, in fact, not homogeneous in terms of hydrographical and biological conditions; therefore, ballast water is a relevant transport mechanism for organisms. Within the North Sea, the short shipping routes indicate a high risk for survival. We examined actual simulation models for ballast water risk assessment in the North Sea, and we have identified the major parameters that need to be included in such models. These models provided a basis; they further need to be combined and adapted for the purpose of evaluating the rationale for an exemption. We concluded that exemptions from BWM are not recommended for the North Sea area. Anticipating the Ballast Water Management Convention, ship owners might do well to study possibilities for installing BWM systems onboard.     

Optimal interpolation of sea surface temperature for the North Sea and Baltic Sea

Sea surface temperature fields of the North Sea and Baltic Sea have been constructed for the year 2001 using a multiplatform Optimal Interpolation scheme. The analyzed fields are constructed every 12 h on a 10 km spatial grid. The product is based upon observations from the three NOAA satellites 12, 14 and 16 together with a large amount of in situ observations. Space dependent covariance functions are estimated from the satellite observations and account for spatial and temporal lags. Several independent methods have been used to assess the error on the sea surface temperature product. Compared against independent in situ observations, the mean RMS difference for the year 2001 is 0.78 °C. The spatial distribution of the errors reveals that the Baltic Sea in general show higher errors than the North Sea. The error statistics throughout the year show a temporal variation of the errors with maximum during summer and winter. Tests with a varying number of satellite observations show that the accuracy of the satellite observations is the most important parameter in terms of reducing the errors on the interpolated sea surface temperature product.     

Improving the physics of a coupled physical–biogeochemical model of the North Atlantic through data assimilation: Impact on the ecosystem

Several studies on coupled physical–biogeochemical models have shown that major deficiencies in the biogeochemical fields arise from the deficiencies in the physical flow fields. This paper examines the improvement of the physics through data assimilation, and the subsequent impact on the ecosystem response in a coupled model of the North Atlantic. Sea surface temperature and sea surface height data are assimilated with a sequential method based on the SEEK filter adapted to the coupling needs. The model domain covers the Atlantic from 20°S to 70°N at eddy-permitting resolution. The biogeochemical model is a NPZD-DOM model based on the P3ZD formulation. The results of an annual assimilated simulation are compared with an annual free simulation.With assimilation, the representation of the mixed layer depth is significantly improved in mid latitudes, even though the mixed layer depth is generally overestimated compared to the observations. The representation of the mean and variance of the currents is also significantly improved.The nutrient input in the euphotic zone is used to assess the data assimilation impact on the ecosystem. Data assimilation results in a 50% reduction of the input due to vertical mixing in mid-latitudes, and in a four- to six-fold increase of the advective fluxes in mid-latitudes and subtropics. Averaged zonally, the net impact is a threefold increase for the subtropical gyre, and a moderate (20–30%) decrease at mid and high latitudes.Surface chlorophyll concentration increases along the subtropical gyre borders, but little changes are detected at mid and high latitudes. An increase of the primary production appears along the Gulf Stream path, but it represents only 12% on average for mid and high latitudes. In the subtropical gyre centre, primary production is augmented but stays underestimated (20% of observations). These experiments show the benefits of physical data assimilation in coupled physical–biogeochemical applications.     

Inter-comparing five forecast operational systems in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean basins: The MERSEA-strand1 methodology

The methodology to achieve a real time inter-comparison of five state-of-the-art operational forecast systems for the North Atlantic and Mediterranean basins is presented. All systems provide analysis and near real-time prediction of the three-dimensional ocean through Opendap servers. A standard set of diagnostics called metrics, is described. Definition and examples of metrics are given. An inter-comparison of the five systems is conducted over a 1 year period using those metrics. It is shown that the methodology developed allows a successful inter-comparison. It has been adopted by the GODAE community. It is also shown that the systems are consistent with the current knowledge of the ocean circulation and climatologies. Systems are deficient in the representation of specific water masses characteristics as Mode waters. Data assimilation of vertical profiles of temperature and salinity solve such deficiencies. Metrics also allow a monitoring of the system's North Atlantic overturning stream function and will allow detecting any changes in the coming year system's thermohaline circulation.     

Importance of ocean circulation in ecological modeling: An example from the North Sea

There is an increasing number of ecological models for the North Sea around. Skogen and Moll (2000) [Skogen, M.D., Moll, A. 2000. Interannual variability of the North Sea primary production: comparison from two model studies. Continental Shelf Research 20 (2), 129–151] compared the interannual variability of the North Sea primary production using two state-of-the-art ecological models, NORWECOM and ECOHAM1. Their conclusion was that the two models agreed on an annual mean primary production, its variability and the timing and size of the peak production. On the other hand, there was a low (even negative dependent of area) correlation in the production in different years between the two models.In the present work, these conclusions are brought further. To try to better understand the observed differences between the two models, the two ecological models are run in an identical physical setting. With such a set-up also the interannual variability between the two models is in agreement, and it is concluded that the single most important factor for a reliable modeling of phytoplankton and nutrient distributions and transports within the North Sea is a proper physical model.     

Norwegian North Sea action programme: Analysis of measures to reduce nutrient inputs

According to the terms of the Ministerial Declaration on the Protection of the North Sea, input of the nutrients phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) to the coast from the Norwegian‐Swedish border to Lindesnes should be reduced by about 50% between 1985 and 1995. The State Pollution Control Authority (SFT) has analyzed how Norway can achieve this reduction in the most cost‐effective way and at the same time achieve the greatest possible improvement in water quality along the Norwegian coast and in its watercourses.

Two alternative sets of measures were analyzed, both of which would meet the requirements of the Declaration. The lowest‐cost alternative would have average annual costs of about NKr 930 million (U.S.S150 million), and investments of about NKr 4000 million (U.S. $643 million). However, this set of measures would not take account of local water quality, and measures would therefore not always be introduced where the need is most pressing. SFT proposed that an alternative set of measures be implemented, almost all of which would also help to achieve local goals for water quality. This alternative will have annual costs of about NKr 980 million (U.S.$158 million), and investments of about NKr 4100 million (U.S.$659 million).     

The California Coastal Act and Ports: The Unintended Environmental Justice Implications of Preserving California's Coastline

Consistent with the policies set forth in the Coastal Zone Management Act, the California Coastal Act seeks to balance the utilization and conservation of coastal resources, taking into account the social and economic needs of the citizens of California. One way the statute pursues this balance is through its provisions for ports. These provisions have functioned as a type of smart growth planning for ports, encouraging densification of existing port districts and possibly averting maritime commercial and industrial sprawl along the California coast. One unintended consequence of the encouraged consolidation of port activities, when combined with the rapid growth in international trade over the last four decades, has been disproportionally large environmental and health impacts on low-income and minority communities surrounding ports. This article examines how the Port of Long Beach's conformance with the California Coastal Act has resulted in ongoing environmental justice concerns. It discusses approaches employed by the Port of Long Beach to reduce environmental justice concerns resulting from significant and unavoidable environmental impacts and offers suggestions for how to address this issue.     

The status of coastal zone management in South Africa

Abstract

In this article, an overview of the status of coastal zone management (CZM) in South Africa is presented. Firstly, it provides background to the development of various initiatives to promote sustainable use of coastal resources within the context of sociopolitical changes in South Africa. Thereafter, it examines the progress made with respect to key attributes underpinning most CZM programs. Finally, it identifies obstacles to achieving effective CZM in South Africa and makes recommendations to address these shortcomings. The review reveals that whilst considerable progress has been made in certain areas of program development, such as resource conservation and pollution control, there are several gaps and inadequacies within existing efforts. These include the absence of a clear policy to guide efforts, lack of coordination amongst government departments involved in CZM, as well as inadequacies in our legal and administrative system. The promulgation of a Coastal Zone Management Act and the establishment of a Coastal Unit charged with the coordination and review of all activities impinging on coastal resources are amongst the recommendations made.     

Stakeholder Perceptions of Seaport Resilience Strategies: A Case Study of Gulfport (Mississippi) and Providence (Rhode Island)

Climate change is having and will continue to have a range of negative impacts on social–environmental systems. Many ports, with their coastal locations and essential roles in regional and national economies, face particular exposure to storm impacts that may worsen with climate change. Currently in the United States port resilience planning falls primarily on port operators. Engaging a wider range of stakeholders in long-term seaport functioning may reduce risks from disruptive and potentially irreversible impacts of climate change. This study uses empirical data gathered through two case studies of highly exposed U.S. ports, Gulfport (MS) and Providence (RI), to identify strategies that port planners and external stakeholders consider feasible for enhancing their port's resilience. This article categorizes these resilience strategies and suggests the potential role that different stakeholders could play in facilitation and implementation.     

Comparisons of urban transport sustainability: Lessons from West and North Africa

The diagnosis for urban transport sustainability depends on the context of different regions worldwide. We focus in this paper on West and North Africa which reveal similarities but also structural differences which are explored further. The importance of paratransit in its various forms is strongly observed in sub-Saharan Africa and to a lesser extent in North Africa. The attempts to regulate and organise this sector have been difficult; one interesting experience in Dakar occurred during a programme of fleet renewal. In parallel it is observed that there are positive but insufficient experiences of public transport authorities in some cities (Dakar, Abidjan) and similar projects postponed in other cities because of the institutional problems. One also observes the constant difficulties of designing sustainable schemes for bus companies. An answer to this crisis has been found in North Africa, through investment in new mass transport systems. However, mass transport projects in West Africa are very weak in comparison. The gap between public transport costs and income levels there remains a major obstacle to sustainable mobility exacerbated by the poverty of a significant part of the urban population in West Africa. Two other critical factors are also identified affecting sustainable mobility requirements, namely, the urban sprawl and increasing energy costs. Finally the conclusion recommends the use of research and expertise networks in order to help the design and the implementation of suited solutions.     

A numerical transport model for predicting the distributions of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in the southern North Sea: the sensitivity of model results to the uncertainties in the magnitudes of metal inputs

A new transport model for metals (named NOSTRADAMUS) has been developed to predict concentrations and distributions of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in the southern North Sea. NOSTRADAMUS is comprised of components for water, inorganic and organic suspended particulate matter transport; a primary production module contributes to the latter component. Metal exchange between dissolved (water) and total suspended particulate matter (inorganic + organic) phases is driven by distribution coefficients. Transport is based on an existent 2-D vertically integrated model, incorporating a 35 × 35 km grid. NOSTRADAMUS is largely driven by data obtained during the Natural Environment Research Council North Sea Project (NERC NSP). The sensitivity of model predictions to uncertainties in the magnitudes of metal inputs has been tested. Results are reported for a winter period (January 1989) when plankton production was low. Simulated ranges in concentrations in regions influenced by the largest inflows, i.e. the NE English coast and the Southern Bight, are similar to the ranges in the errors of the concentrations estimated at the northern and southern open sea boundaries of the model. Inclusion of uncertainties with respect to atmospheric (up to ± 54%) and riverine (± 30%) inputs makes little difference to the calculated concentrations of both dissolved and particulate fractions within the southern North Sea. When all the errors associated with the inputs are included there is good agreement between computed and observed concentrations, and that for dissolved and particulate Cd, Cu and Zn, and dissolved Ni and Pb, many of the observations fall within, or are close to, the range of values generated by the model. For particulate Pb, model simulations predict concentrations of the right order, but do not reproduce the large scatter in actual concentrations, with simulated concentrations showing a bias towards lower values compared to those observed. A factor which could have contributed to observed concentrations, and which is not included in the model, is considered to be a substantial benthic input of dissolved lead during this winter period, coupled to a rapid and extensive scavenging of the dissolved lead to particles. Significant reductions in riverine and aeolian inputs of total Cd and Cu of 70% and 50%, respectively, consistent with aims of North Sea Conferences, are predicted to lead to minor decreases (~ 10%) in water column concentrations of dissolved and particulate Cd and Cu, except near river sources, where maximum reductions of ~ 30–40% may occur.     

Collaborative Integrated Management in Canada's North: The Role of Local and Traditional Knowledge and Community-Based Monitoring

The objective of this article is to take stock of integrated management in the Canadian North, assessing its contribution to the advancement of knowledge and practice regarding the role of indigenous knowledge and community-based monitoring. This is done in three steps. (1) The Beaufort Sea, designated a Large Ocean Management Area under Canada's Oceans Action Plan, is used as an example of a consultative planning process, with special attention to indigenous peoples. (2) How specifically can indigenous knowledge contribute to integrated management? The problem of Arctic marine food web contamination is used to illustrate the strengths and limitations of traditional ecological knowledge and its relationship to science. (3) The discussion of community-based monitoring relies on Voices From The Bay study involving the Inuit and Cree of Hudson and James Bay, and Inuit observations of climate change study in the Canadian western Arctic. The examples together address integrated coastal management and the health of ocean ecosystems, showing how stakeholder participation and knowledge helps widen the range of knowledge to understand and help monitor environmental change.     

The PROFILE project: an overview

The EC MAST project PROFILE (Processes in Regions of Freshwater Influence, ROFIs) aims to develop process understanding and tested numerical models for ROFIs. This includes the role of physical processes controlling water-property distributions, suspended sediments controlling the availability of light, nutrients and phytoplankton growth. The project comprises: (1) construction of a 3D nearshore model, with high resolution (1 h and one km approx.) and a framework coupling modules for hydrodynamics (tides, effects of winds and waves, currents, temperature, salinity, turbulence and diffusivity), sediments, plankton, nutrients and oxygen, (2) investigation of methods to include ROFI model detail in coarser shelf-wide models, (3) specific tests of model components against measurements, (4) tests of model calculations against measurements in contrasted ROFIs, (5) systematic observations suitable for these model tests (time-series over a seasonal cycle for dynamics and intermittency, good vertical resolution and spatial surveys) of the contrasted Rhine, Clyde and Thermaikos Bay ROFIs, complementing earlier measurements in the ROFI areas of the Rhine, German Bight and Po, (6) interpretation and comparison of the contrasted ROFIs' behaviour, (7) a defined set of observations, model code and output suitable for subsequent integration and promulgation as test data and a nearshore model for wider use.     

Marine and coastal protected areas in Latin America: A preliminary assessment

Abstract

One approach to the management of coastal and marine areas is the establishment of protected areas (e.g., reserves, parks, sanctuaries). Under the general rubric of “marine reserves,”; this paper examines the Latin American experience with this strategy. A comprehensive table lists most, if not all, national or state declared parks or reserves. The table is organized by country. All Latin American nations have, to a varying extent, declared marine parks and protected areas. The authors review the sources or uses which have been “managed”; by marine reserves, the management approaches, uses, and problem which have been identified in achieving management objectives. The authors conclude with observations about the potential future utility of marine reserves as a management approach for areas and resources of the coastal and littoral zones of Latin America.     

Developing management guidelines for oil and gas activities: The louisiana experience

Abstract

Preliminary management guidelines have been derived for oil and gas activities in coastal Louisiana. Derivation of these guidelines was done in terms of the natural function of the coastal ecosystem; this means that all economic activities should be designed to complement natural function as much as possible. The guidelines range in scope from very specific, almost performance standards, to very general admonitions. For example, we have suggested that spoil banks, produced as a result of dredging, should not be higher than the height of the daily tide or roughly 15 cm in coastal Louisiana, and at the other extreme, we have suggested that all dredging should be done with great care during wildlife migrations, spawning, and nesting times.     

A Review of Integrated Coastal Management Educational Materials in the Philippines and Indonesia: Matching Materials with Needs

This article explores existing educational materials available to support integrated coastal management (ICM) in the Philippines and Indonesia. Emphasis is placed on materials gathered from informal education institutions (i.e., nongovernmental organizations, donor-sponsored projects, national initiatives, etc.). Over 100 sets of educational materials were collected and evaluated based upon criteria such as interactive qualities, availability, target audience, geographical focus, etc. Several deficiencies and gaps in the content and coverage of ICM materials were observed. Most significantly, it appears that improved coordination of education programs and dissemination of educational materials is needed. Accessibility and the choice of delivery mechanism (i.e., books, Internet, videos, etc.) also emerged as important considerations when designing educational materials. Surveys conducted with ICM practitioners in the Philippines and Indonesia further illustrate the challenges and opportunities in ICM education. Findings from the assessment of educational materials and surveys facilitated the development of several recommendations for future ICM educational materials, including improved local-level ICM education and focusing on ICM and ICM process sustainability.     

The Gulf Stream, rings and North Atlantic eddy structures from remote sensing (Altimeter and SeaWiFS)

Seasonal SeaWiFS chlorophyll a concentrations cycles and annual changes of altimeter Sea Level Anomaly are derived for the subtropical North Atlantic near  35°N and along a Gulf Stream axis. Spatial structure of SeaWiFS, is defined in terms of deviations from a local seasonal cycle and examined in relation to altimeter eddy structure. In the subtropical region near 35°N, SeaWiFS structure is evident during the spring bloom period with a scale of  430 km, or about twice the eddy scale. A Gulf Stream axis has been selected as a region where the Sea Level Anomaly variance is a maximum. Eddy propagation speeds and scales are examined. Cold-core (cyclonic) rings correspond to areas of high SeaWiFS chlorophyll a. Warm-core (anticyclonic) rings relate to areas of low chlorophyll concentration. Both SeaWiFS structure and eddy structure have a spatial scale of  450 km or twice the ring scale along the Gulf Stream axis. SeaWiFS chlorophyll anomalies and Altimeter Sea Level Anomaly structure have an overall negative correlation coefficient of r = − 0.34. Swirl currents between eddies redistribute surface chlorophyll concentrations and can spatially bias maximum and minimum concentration levels off eddy centre.     

Regional fishery management councils: The federal perspective

Abstract

Under the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, the federal government cooperates with states, the fishing industry, and public constituencies to regulate fisheries. This paper notes changes in U.S. fisheries over the last decade, remarks on the effectiveness of the Act, and makes suggestions for an improved fishery management process.