Book reviews

Innovation, organizational capabilities, and environmental values combine to determine institutional change for a major marine port. This conceptual framework is applied to the case of dredged material management for the Port of New York and New Jersey. During the century under review, the institutional setting has changed significantly with: (1) environmental considerations moving from nearly irrelevant to central: (2) the number of interests and organizations increasing; and (3) the decision processes becoming far more complex. Ultimately, the new institutional setting influences organizations and individual decisions. As a result of the changes, the practice of dredged material disposal in ocean waters has been limited based on the level of bioaccumulation of selected contaminants. In response to institutional changes, ports requiring deepened channels must rapidly innovate to meet new environmental obligations for material disposal in order to enhance organizational capabilities necessary to maintain competitive advantages in maritime commerce. Successful marine ports will anticipate and meet new societal expectations related to the environment as a condition for continued legitimacy. Collectively these changes imply that ports have moved beyond a carefully circumscribed mission of transportation and economic development to that of a prominent user of coastal space with broad obligations to the public.     

Institutional change in the Port of New York

Innovation, organizational capabilities, and environmental values combine to determine institutional change for a major marine port. This conceptual framework is applied to the case of dredged material management for the Port of New York and New Jersey. During the century under review, the institutional setting has changed significantly with: (1) environmental considerations moving from nearly irrelevant to central: (2) the number of interests and organizations increasing; and (3) the decision processes becoming far more complex. Ultimately, the new institutional setting influences organizations and individual decisions. As a result of the changes, the practice of dredged material disposal in ocean waters has been limited based on the level of bioaccumulation of selected contaminants. In response to institutional changes, ports requiring deepened channels must rapidly innovate to meet new environmental obligations for material disposal in order to enhance organizational capabilities necessary to maintain competitive advantages in maritime commerce. Successful marine ports will anticipate and meet new societal expectations related to the environment as a condition for continued legitimacy. Collectively these changes imply that ports have moved beyond a carefully circumscribed mission of transportation and economic development to that of a prominent user of coastal space with broad obligations to the public.     

Modeling Coastal and Marine Environmental Risks in Belize: the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS)

The livelihood of coastal communities is directly linked to the health of intertidal and marine ecosystems. Coastal zones and marine areas are rapidly changing and highly vulnerable to impacts from climate change, accelerating human development, and over-fishing. Quality of life and the benefits of coastal development can be greatly enhanced, and costs minimized, by projecting and comparing alternative policy outcomes before management decisions are made. This article describes the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS), an interactive decision support tool designed to assist the users and managers of Belize's system of marine management areas (MMAs) in understanding the interactions among various ecological, socioeconomic, and governance conditions in a spatially explicit manner. MIDAS can simulate and visualize the likely effects of alternative management strategies and therefore provides an important tool for evaluating potential scenarios. We developed two MIDAS modules to address specific threats in Belize –spatial risk resulting from mangrove deforestation in coastal areas and the potential effect of an oil spill off the coast of Belize. Workshops conducted in Belize indicate that diverse user groups such as fishers, tourism operators, and public environmental agencies can successfully utilize MIDAS to understand MMA outcomes, and environmental risks.     

Potential and benefits of electronic charts to Maritime Administrations

Electronic charts have come more and more into use for marine navigation. If complying with the relevant international standards they are an accepted substitute to the mandatory carriage of paper nautical charts. However, the potential of such official, high-quality electronic chart data goes far beyond the use for navigation. In order to show its potential, the basic concepts and features of official electronic charts as a marine geographic information data base are explained and the relation of Hydrographic Offices responsible for their production, to Maritime Administrations is described. The data standard to be followed for electronic charts opens the use of the data for a wide range of possible applications. If efficiently organised, Maritime Administrations can be provided with a powerful, versatile database establishing a single geographic reference data base for e.g. Vessel Traffic Services, for Search and Rescue as well as for various applications in Coastal Zone Management including coastal protection and marine environmental protection. Ultimately, digital marine geographic information will become part of the evolving global spatial data infrastructure.     

Spatially Prioritizing Seafloor Mapping for Coastal and Marine Planning

Coastal and marine areas provide vital services to support the economic, cultural, recreational, and ecological needs of human communities, but sustaining these benefits necessitates a balance between growing and often competing uses and activities. Minimizing coastal zone conflict and reducing human-induced impacts to ecological resources requires access to consistent spatial information on the distribution and condition of marine resources. Seafloor mapping provides a detailed and reliable spatial template on the structure of the seafloor that has become a core data need for many resource management strategies. The absence of detailed maps of the seafloor hinders the effectiveness of priority setting in marine policy, regulatory processes, and marine stewardship. For large management areas, the relatively high cost of seafloor mapping and limited management budgets requires careful spatial prioritization. In order to address this problem, a consensus based approach, aided by decision-support tools, and participatory geographic information systems (GIS), was implemented in Long Island Sound to spatially prioritize locations, define additional data collection efforts needed, and identify products needed to inform decision-making. The methodology developed has utility for other states and regions in need of spatially prioritizing activities for coastal planning, and organizations charged with providing geospatial services to communities with broad informational needs.     

Use of GIS-Based Models for Integrating and Developing Marine Fish Cages within the Tourism Industry in Tenerife (Canary Islands)

Site selection is a key factor in any aquaculture operation, affecting both success and sustainability. Moreover, it can solve conflicts between different coastal activities, making a rational use of the coastal space. Geographical information systems (GIS) have become of increased significance for environmental planning and assessment mainly because of the need to compare a great number of spatially related data, and because it can be used to couple these spatial data with their attributes and overlay them. This study used GIS and related technology to build a spatial database using those criteria which were considered to have any influence in integrating marine fish-cage culture within the tourism industry in Tenerife. Criteria were grouped in three submodels (distance to beaches, nautical sports, and viewshed), which were combined to generate a final output showing the most suitable areas for cage culture development in coexistence with tourism. Most areas of the coastline of Tenerife were identified as being suitable (56%) or very suitable (46%), suggesting that marine cage aquaculture could be developed on the island in coexistence with the well-established tourism industry.     

Management Cybernetics: A New Institutional Framework for Coastal Management

This article analyzes institutional arrangements for the delivery of coastal programs through a new way of thinking about their evolution and structure. The notion of three distinct "dimensions" describing the phases in the evolution of institutional arrangements is introduced. The notion of dimensions is developed from conceptualizing about how institutional arrangements are diagrammed. This allows the visualization of how individual institutions and key stakeholders relate to each other in the delivery of coastal programs, how effective these relationships are, and how their relationships could be redesigned. "Dimensional thinking" enables the re-examination of existing institutional design of coastal programs and how these can evolve to meet the challenges of the new millennium. It is concluded that institutional arrangements have grown from a single dimensional view, where institutions (mainly governmental) delivered programs in isolation, through to the present second dimension where agency programs are managed through coordinating bodies and through coastal management plans. It is argued that a third dimension of institutional arrangements, one that recognizes and embraces the rapid pace of change in this century, will be needed that is aligned by themes rather than by organizational structure. To illustrate a third dimension a visualization tool is developed drawing from management cybernetics. It recognizes the increasing importance of formal and informal networks in relation to traditional modernist hierarchical management by recognizing multiple stakeholders (government at all levels, industry, advocacy groups, conservation interests, and the broader community) and their degree of mutual dependence. Dimensional thinking has the potential to institutionalize the interaction between these multiple stakeholders to ensure the effective delivery of coastal programs in the new millennium. A single answer to what the third dimension of coastal management program evolution should include is not presented. Rather, an approach is presented that allows coastal managers to move forward in the debate on redesigning coastal programs to meet today's complex suite of issues, values, and interests. An experimental case study from Western Australia is used to illustrate the potential application of the dimensional thinking to coastal management institutional design in that State's coastal program.     

Spatial and Temporal Changes in Access Rights to Shellfish Resources in British Columbia

Over the past decade, the shellfish and finfish aquaculture industry has expanded rapidly in coastal British Columbia (BC) Canada. Foreshore and nearshore shellfish and finfish aquaculture leaseholds are sited in close proximity or in direct competition with habitat for wild shellfish. As a result, some wild shellfish harvesters believe shellfish farms are significantly reducing access to beaches and estuarine areas for wild harvesting, or that salmon farms are contaminating wild shellfish stocks. In this article, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to analyze spatial and temporal trends in the growth of shellfish and finfish aquaculture tenures in BC, while interviews with stakeholders in coastal communities are used to explore user conflicts and the implications of changing access rights on the distribution of marine resources. Qualitative and quantitative findings suggest that shellfish aquaculture provides significant economic opportunities for coastal communities, but that such development may hold increased risk of spatial conflicts over marine habitat as the aquaculture industry continues to grow.     

An Institutional Model for Comanagement of Coastal Resources in Fiji

In light of increasingly depleted coastal resources under the current management structure, this article explores the institutional arrangements that would be necessary in Fiji to create and implement a viable comanagement regime that would devolve some of the responsibility for management to the communities. Based on the literature concerning institutions for comanagement and the present situation and the institutional management structure in Fiji, it is recommended that government act as the catalyst by putting forth an enabling policy framework for comanagement that formally recognizes customary marine tenure. Such a policy should allow communities to derive bylaws from local rules, through shared management and technical assistance at the provincial level. At this same administrative level, planning units are recommended to coordinate government management of activities in the coastal zone.     

Training Needs of Coastal Resources Decision Makers in Ohio's Lake Erie Basin

This article describes results from a study focused on informational and knowledge needs of local coastal resources decision makers in the Ohio Lake Erie basin. New information was obtained through a series of focus groups of local decision makers and key training providers in the basin. The results suggest that training providers and local coastal resources decision makers have differing perceptions of knowledge and information needs and training venues. The results suggest a role for state and federal agency training providers as coordinators and facilitators of an enhanced learning network among decision makers, including support of an information clearinghouse, adoption of appropriate e-based learning modalities, and regionally based learning and practice networks to improve the function of the training market to meet local decision maker needs.     

A Race for Marine Space: Science,Values, and Aquaculture Planning in New Zealand

New Zealand (NZ) has developed a coastal management framework that includes large watersheds and territorial waters (out to 12 nautical miles). The article describes the developing conflicts associated with the biophysical and epistemological dimensions of expanding coastal marine space for aquaculture. We first review aquaculture policy in NZ, and recent evidence of the biophysical impacts from increasing terrestrial inputs on marine ecosystems. We provide a case study of conflict over a recent proposal to expand salmon aquaculture in the Marlborough Sounds, which covers some 4,000 km² of sounds, islands, and peninsulas. Based on information and data from interviews of stakeholders involved in the aquaculture planning, we describe three diverse epistemologies of science—client-based science, civic science, and Māori traditional ecological knowledge. We conclude the article with a critical review of how to better resolve spatial conflicts that often emerge in coastal management and planning.     

The role of geomatics engineering in establishing the marine information system for maritime management

Maritime management encompasses the employment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources that relate to the sea, maritime navigation, shipping, port development and coastal protection. It contributes to the economic growth, price stability, transportation of cargoes and passengers, and business activities of shipping organizations. The efficient management of resources, operations and activities relies on a modern marine information system (MIS) whose information is provided by geomatics engineers and IT professionals, among others. This paper first introduces the role of the geomatics engineer as geodesist, engineering surveyor, land boundary surveyor, cartographer, hydrographer, photogrammetrist and geographic information system (GIS) engineer since all these fields are related to maritime trade, supply chains and development of ports and airports. It then describes the principal components of a web-based MIS and the important role of geomatics engineers in surveying data. This includes collecting data from electronic nautical charts (ENC) and raster nautical charts (RNC), by applying high resolution light detection and ranging (LIDAR), satellite platform sensors and GIS.     

The role of geomatics engineering in establishing the marine information system for maritime management

Maritime management encompasses the employment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources that relate to the sea, maritime navigation, shipping, port development and coastal protection. It contributes to the economic growth, price stability, transportation of cargoes and passengers, and business activities of shipping organizations. The efficient management of resources, operations and activities relies on a modern marine information system (MIS) whose information is provided by geomatics engineers and IT professionals, among others. This paper first introduces the role of the geomatics engineer as geodesist, engineering surveyor, land boundary surveyor, cartographer, hydrographer, photogrammetrist and geographic information system (GIS) engineer since all these fields are related to maritime trade, supply chains and development of ports and airports. It then describes the principal components of a web-based MIS and the important role of geomatics engineers in surveying data. This includes collecting data from electronic nautical charts (ENC) and raster nautical charts (RNC), by applying high resolution light detection and ranging (LIDAR), satellite platform sensors and GIS.     

Ocean Citizenship: An Emergent Geographical Concept

Ocean citizenship describes a relationship between our everyday lives and the health of the coastal and marine environment. Through our everyday lives we affect, and are affected by, the marine and coastal environment in numerous ways. As such, individuals have a responsibility to make informed lifestyle choices to minimize this impact. In doing so, the actions of individuals can contribute to the amelioration of large-scale and seemingly insurmountable geographical problems. This article outlines the concept of ocean citizenship within the context of the public understanding of marine environmental issues. The article draws heavily on the experience of the National Maritime Museum as an important contributor to the development of ocean citizenship in the United Kingdom. Specifically, the Planet Ocean initiative will be examined, in which the Museum has adopted a multimodal approach to public engagement through exhibitions, educational resources, and specific research publications. The article concludes by highlighting the importance of geography in the development and sustainability of ocean citizenship.     

Arctic shipping scenarios and coastal state challenges

The Arctic Council, an intergovernmental forum of the eight Arctic states, is currently embarked on a comprehensive assessment of Arctic marine activity in the 21^st century — the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment (AMSA). One of the challenges for theAMSA study team has been to identify the major uncertainties that will be central to shaping the future of Arctic marine use in 2020 and 2050. Using scenario planning, AMSA has identified two primary drivers and uncertainties: (A) Resources and trade; and, (B) Governance. Four scenario narratives have been developed with these two, key uncertainties as the framework elements. The main arguments focus on the fact the Arctic has experienced globalization early in the century and that the global maritime industry has already ventured into the Arctic Ocean. Marine access in the Arctic Ocean is also changing in unprecedented ways and the extraordinary transformation Arctic sea ice is undergoing — thinning, extent reduction, and a reduction in the area of multiyear ice in the central ocean — has significant implications for longer seasons of navigation. However, the high prices of global commodities such as oil, gas, and hard minerals (for example, copper, nickel and zinc) have generated high levels of demand for Arctic natural resources. The Arctic states are challenged by an overall lack of maritime infrastructure to adequately support current and future levels of Arctic marine operations; ports, communications, environmental monitoring, search & rescue, incident response, aids to navigation, and coastal charting, to name a few, require substantial and timely investment by the coastal states and marine operators. A second challenge is the ongoing development of an integrated system of rules and regulations governing Arctic navigation that will enhance marine safety and ensure marine environmental protection throughout the basin. These challenges will require historic levels of cooperation among the Arctic states and broad engagement with the many, non-Arctic stakeholders and actors within the global maritime industry.     

Development of Beach Analysis Tools for Caribbean Small Islands

Beach erosion presents a hazard to coastal tourism facilities, which provide the main economic thrust for most Caribbean small islands (CSIs). Ad hoc approaches to addressing this problem have given way to the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach, which recommends data collection, analysis of coastal processes, and assessment of impacts. UNESCO's Coast and Beach Stability in the Caribbean (COSALC) project has provided most CSIs with an opportunity to monitor their beaches and collect over 10 years of data. Research has been directed at integrating these data with geographic information systems (GIS) and other information technologies to develop a prototype beach analysis and management system (BAMS) for CSIs. This article presents the results of phase I development of this effort, which includes the development of tools for integrating spatial and non-spatial coastal data, estimating long-term beach erosion/accretion and sand volume change trends at individual beaches, identifying erosion-sensitive beaches, and mapping beach erosion hazards. The Southeast Peninsula, St. Kitts, is used as a case study to develop these tools and demonstrate system functionality.     

A Spatial Analysis of Fish Farming in the Context of ICZM in the Bay of Izmir-Turkey

Cage fish farming is one of the fastest growing food industries, both worldwide and in Turkey. There are growing concerns about the manner of resolving the competing claims for the use of limited coastline and water body space. Matters connected with the siting of fish farming increase the need for the integrated coastal zone planning of aquaculture. This should be undertaken in collusion with other coastal stakeholders and with the cooperation of the government ministries that promote and regulate aquaculture development. In this study the integration and coexistence of fish farms is evaluated in the context of other activities in Izmir Bay. This study shows how different terrestrial and marine activities interact with each other, and that certain areas are subject to layers of multiple usages. One of the major sea users of the Bay, for example, is the fishery sector, which utilizes 850.4 km² of a total surface area of Izmir's Bay of 960.4 km². This overlaps with the 113.4 km² that are used by marine transportation. Military zones encompass 63.1 km² and fish farming utilizes only 1.23 km². This study uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to build a spatial database that analyzes conflicting claims for integrating fish farming with other claimants. Clearly planned and properly managed fish farming development should be undertaken within a broader framework of integrated coastal zone management.     

Exploring Participants' Views of Participatory Coastal and Marine Resource Management Processes

It is generally accepted that stakeholders, including resource users, scientists, conservationists, government and nongovernment organizations, and the general public, can contribute positively to management processes and may even benefit from such processes. However, we continue to struggle with how to design processes that effectively involve these stakeholders. To illuminate potential improvements to traditional processes, this study examines participants’ perceptions of coastal and marine resource management processes. Through semi-structured interviews, respondents describe how they feel about various elements of participatory processes. Responses offer insight into the multiple dimensions of participatory process elements described in the literature, such as influence on decisions, exchange of information, access to the process, transparent decision making, and others. Responses also identify additional elements that have received limited attention in the public-participation literature: hosting meetings at various scales, recognizing differences within interest groups, and considering the context of a process. Results from this study will help to inform the design of participatory coastal and marine resource management processes.     

Fisheries–Marine Protected Area–Tourism Interactions in Moalboal,Cebu, Philippines

The development of Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) in the Philippines has been underway for more than 30 years. As coastal communities continue to face dwindling resources from both the land and sea, marine protected areas (MPAs) have been regularly utilized as a community-based marine conservation tool. Recently, marine tourism has begun to exert influence as a driver utilized by local communities to promote the establishment of MPAs. Revenue generated through user-fee systems has begun to influence and shape broker–local–tourist (BLT) interactions in Moalboal, Cebu, Philippines. In this article, an account of the social dynamics surrounding MPAs is presented, sources of tension are identified, and recommendations proposed.     

Application of a Sustainable Fisheries Development Indicator System (SFDIS) for Better Management Outcomes in Taiwan Offshore and Coastal Fishery

A sustainable fisheries development indicator system (SFDIS) is proposed in this article to monitor management of Taiwan's offshore and coastal fisheries. Demonstration of its application shows that the ecological index is tending toward sustainability but to conserve fisheries’ resources it is necessary to strengthen habitat protection and management through a partnership approach. The economic index is tending toward unsustainability as a result of a decline in fisheries’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP), value, economic production, and investment. An aging fisherman population and decreasing social performance and resilience contribute to unsustainability of the social index. By contrast, the institutional index is sustainable because of improved management efficiency, ability, and capacity-building. However, some problems exist with regard to compliance and acceptability of institutional expense. Overall, the SFDIS suggests that an increase in employee number, incorrect statistical data, and unacceptable institutional expense will make Taiwan's offshore and coastal fisheries unsustainable in the long run.