Land use implications of sea level rise: A case study at myrtle beach,South Carolina

Abstract

the prospect of global warming and consequent sea level rise will have important implications for coastal communities. this article examines the land use implications of alternate sea level rise scenarios on the city of myrtle beach, south carolina. current trends as well as high and low sea level rise scenarios are superimposed on the city's beach profile and near shore contours to estimate the type and value of land development likely to be impacted.

It is found that losses associated with accelerated sea level rise would be particularly high in the city's hotel district and that overall property loss could range from 21 to 60% of the city's total property value. to lessen these potential losses, coastal communities such as myrtle beach must choose among one of three policy options including: (1) barricade the beach, (2) raise the land, and (3) implement a strategic retreat. specific alternatives within each of these options are explored in turn. the article concludes that successful development plans will incorporate ground rules sensitive to and consistent with dynamic coastal processes.     

Response of coastal zone management programs to sea level rise in the United States

Abstract

State coastal zone management programs are responding to the potential impacts of accelerated sea level rise through a wide range of activities and policies. This article provides a brief overview of the Coastal Zone Management Act and other federal laws that provide the basis for coastal state regulatory activities. It surveys the level of response to sea level rise by state coastal management programs in 24 marines coastal states, from formal recognition to implementation of policies addressing the issue. Individual state CZMP responses and policies that have been implemented or proposed are categorized. The adaptation of sea level rise to ongoing institutional objectives is discussed and policy constraints and trends are summarized.     

Analysis of Ocean-Space and Sea-Level Rise Policy in Two Coastal Cities

Global sea-level rise (SLR) is among the most alarming aspects of anthropogenic climate change. The human impacts of SLR are experienced unequally between and within municipalities. Existing research has identified social variables that predict municipal adoption of adaptive SLR policy, but this work does not account for the locally specific social factors that shape particular policies to fit particular cases. This study describes social conceptions of the ocean and SLR policy for two coastal cities in western Washington: Aberdeen and Bainbridge Island. Examining conceptions of marine spaces provides insight into the complex process by which local physical and socio-demographic characteristics shape local policy. The study uses a grounded theoretical approach to content analyses, resulting in localized typologies of marine spaces as well as SLR policy profiles for each case. Results indicate that municipalities vary by both social conception of the ocean and SLR policy form. These findings elaborate upon the relationship between socioeconomic conditions and municipal climate change policy adoption, suggesting that in local media and policy discourse, the absence of relevant resources is related to adversarial conceptions of local marine spaces, while abundance of relevant resources is associated with a conception of marine spaces as natural resources.     

Socio-ecological Mobility: A Research Strategy for a New Coastline

Abstract

Persistent development, population pressures, and increasing natural hazards are unequivocally changing socio-ecological systems in the coastal zone. This essay provides direction and initiates scientific dialog on the potential role of mobility in adapting to natural and social changes in coastal environments. The essay identifies four key research areas on information needed to develop coastal management actions and policies that support and recognize socio-ecological coupling in coastal areas. The proposed research includes: (1) modeling localized scenarios that illustrate the tradeoffs associated with various sea level rise adaptation, (2) assessing and consolidating mobility terminology for different applications and contexts, (3) developing solutions to synchronize the co-migration of natural environments and built infrastructure, and (4) evaluating existing or creating new transparent, equitable, and sustainable policies and incentives to support socio-ecological mobility by using case studies and social science methods to understand how people make mobility decisions in different contexts.     

The cost of not holding back the sea: Toward a national sample of economic vulnerability

Abstract

National and regional estimates of U.S. economic vulnerability to greenhouse‐induced sea‐level rise are produced from a sample of 30 discrete regions scattered evenly along the coastline. Scenarios that envision 50 cm, 100 cm, and 200 cm of greenhouse‐induced sea‐level rise are considered. They can be expected to place $39.2, $65.6, and $133.3 billion, respectively, (1989 dollars) of existing development in jeopardy through 2050, and $133.3, $308.7, and $909.4 billion through 2100. Sampling error and consideration of the uncertainty with which we currently view future greenhouse‐induced sea‐level rise places the 25th and 75th percentile values of expected cumulative vulnerability at $38.5 and $76.7 billion through 2050 and $132.6 and $362.4 billion through 2100. Not surprisingly, the southeast displays the largest potential vulnerability, with the northeast ranking second above both the Gulf coast and the west coast.     

Armoring Against Coastal Climate Adaptation in the US: A Massachusetts Perspective

Massachusetts, like many coastal states in the US, stands to be impacted from climate-induced sea level rise. As a result, climate-sensitive coastal policy instruments are critical for providing adequate adaptation options, including an option to allow coastal features to migrate inland. But the migration of coastal features is under threat due to extensive private armoring. This essay highlights specific regulatory instruments at the federal and state level dealing with hard armoring using Massachusetts as an example. It argues specific federal and state regulations legitimize and incentivize hard armoring over other coastal land use planning methods. The current level of armoring in Massachusetts is highlighted and implications under current federal and state policy frameworks are explained. Suggestions for coastal states planning for sea level rise are discussed, including the need for state planning to take the lead. Recommendations for changes at the federal level are also highlighted.     

The confined disposal program for polluted dredged spoil in the great lakes

Abstract

Delay in the construction of containment sites is allowing time for significant adjustments in the confined disposal program of the Great Lakes. Through modification of the pollution criteria and improvements in harbor sampling, fewer containment sites, some with smaller capacities, are now required. Perhaps most important, the delays are providing additional time for upgrading waste treatment facilities which may be reducing future dredging volumes. Unless pollution abatement measures are implemented and technological improvements made regarding containment of the excess spoil water, cleanup of the harbors and connecting channels may not be fully accomplished during the 10‐year period in which containment sites are authorized.     

Policy considerations for wetland wastewater treatment in the coastal zone: A case study for Louisiana

Two major environmental problems currently affecting the Louisiana coastal zone are a high rate of wetland loss and high levels of surface water pollution. The application of secondarily treated wastewater to wetlands can be a means of dealing with both of these problems. The benefits of wetland wastewater treatment include improved surface water quality, increased accretion rates to balance a high relative water level rise due mainly to subsidence, improved plant productivity and habitat quality, and decreased capital outlays for conventional engineering treatment systems. Wetland treatment systems can, therefore, be designed and operated to restore deteriorating wetlands. Hydrologically altered wetlands, which are common in the Louisiana coastal zone, are appropriate for receiving municipal and some types of industrial effluent. While the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has determined wetland wastewater treatment is effective in treating municipal effluent, it has discouraged the use of natural wetlands for this purpose. At the same time, funds are being used for the construction of artificial wetlands to treat municipal effluent. In the Louisiana coastal zone, however, wetlands are deteriorating and disappearing due to hydrological alteration and a high rate of relative sea level rise. If no action is taken, these trends will continue. Effluent discharge to existing wetlands should be incorporated into a comprehensive management plan designed to increase sediment and nutrient input into subsiding wetlands in the Louisiana coastal zone, improve water quality, and result in more economical waste‐water treatment. The authors believe that the Louisiana example serves as a model for other coastal areas especially in light of projections of accelerated sea level rise.     

Vulnerability of Coastal Resort Cities to Mean Sea Level Rise in the Mexican Caribbean

We evaluated the potential economic impacts of increasing sea level rise (SLR) along the Mexican Caribbean where there are major gaps in our understanding of the mechanisms controlling flooding duration and frequency associated to future ecological and economic impacts. We determined the negative economic impact of SLR on infrastructure in the largest urban centers (Cancun, Isla Mujeres, Playa del Carmen, Puerto Morelos and Cozumel) in the state of Quintana Roo (Mexico) that are considered the largest tourism “hot spots” (resort cities) in the country. The tourism industry in this coastal area injects >8 billion dollars year^?1 to the Mexican economy. Our conservative economic assessment regarding the impact of SLR, under a 1?m scenario for all coastal cities is $330 million USD. Further projections for worst scenarios (SLR >2 m) show a non-linear trend where the cost of inaction can reach up to $1.4 billion USD (2?m SLR scenario) and $2.3 billion USD (3?m SLR scenario). This potential loss of infrastructure, as construction cost, is staggering and represents a robust baseline to start evaluating with more detail future impacts of climate variability and change on the Mexican Caribbean coastline.     

Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage Impact Assessments in China

Abstract

During the past decades, the number of coastal and marine construction projects has multiplied in China, posing a serious threat to underwater cultural heritage in its waters. In contrast, there are few rules dealing with underwater cultural heritage impact assessment which has not yet become a mandatory procedure in various coastal and marine construction projects. With China putting forward the Belt and Road Initiative, the conflicts between the protection of underwater cultural heritage and the need of various coastal and marine construction projects might become more frequent. Chinese legislation in this domain, undergoing important revision, intends to establish a mandatory procedure of proactive archeological investigation. This revision could have a great influence on the protection of underwater cultural heritage as well as the coastal and marine construction projects in China but the relevant provisions are still far from satisfactory. The present study will review the current Chinese legislation concerning the impact assessment of marine or coastal construction projects on underwater cultural heritage and explore the possibility for further improvement at the legislative level.     

Port authorities view state coastal management programs

Abstract

An estuarine sanctuary is a store of public values due to the ecological, cultural, recreational, aesthetic, historic, and economic services provided by the preserve. These values may be expected to increase over time because of (1) growth in the population demanding estuarine services, (2) growth in the willingness to pay for such services, and (3) growth in the actual quality and quantity of services which are provided by a protected natural system. Thus an estuarine sanctuary will be more valuable to future generations than to current generations. When weighing the cost and benefits of a preservation or development decision, a preservation decision which seems currently undesirable may in fact be socially beneficial when growth in the value of estuarine services is included.     

The Role of Indigenous Resurgence in Marine Conservation

Abstract

Indigenous peoples’ efforts toward environmental conservation are indivisible from their cultural identity and their social and political organizations. Indigenous resurgence, including the reinvigoration and reestablishment of Indigenous ways of living, are linked to the management, restoration, and conservation of marine and coastal ecosystems around the world. However, there remains a significant gap in the recognition and support of Indigenous governance systems in international policy discussions regarding conservation work. As a way to address this gap, we offer an analysis of marine Indigenous community-led conservation initiatives from around the world that were recipients of the UNDP Equator Prize, framed by initial research on Indigenous-led conservation in British Columbia, Canada. We highlight specific Indigenous governance strategies undertaken by such communities that foster both marine resource conservation and stewardship. The strategies we identified included practicing Indigenous traditional resource management, protection of traditional territories, Indigenous-led actions of environmental conservation, and data collection and monitoring. We also identified networking and collaboration with non-Indigenous supporters, as was reinvestment into education and capacity-building within the community. We conclude with concrete policy suggestions drawn from these cases that can help strengthen the leadership and self-determination of Indigenous peoples on local resource and environmental issues, and aid in much broader conservation efforts globally.     

State ocean policy initiatives in Florida

Abstract

A territorial sea comprising 6.7 million acres of offshore lands extending three geographic miles into the Atlantic Ocean three marine leagues (nine geographic miles) into the Gulf of Mexico makes Florida the second largest “oceanowning”; state in the contiguous United States. Florida's history, climate, economic development, and worldwide reputation have evolved from the state's relationship with the sea. The state is now becoming aware that aggressive management of its ocean resources is necessary to preserve the future of that relationship. The purpose of this article is to present some of Florida's recent legal and policy initiatives that have been directed toward better understanding and management of ocean resources and uses.     

Marina inventory and berthing supply projections: Mississippi's Gulf Coast

Abstract

The location as well as pace of marina development is a major issue in current coastal zone management. The supply and demand for marinas providing certain services in specific locations are growing and must be met. At the same time the environmental integrity of the coastal zone must be maintained against the many possible impacts of marina development. Compounding these problems from the view of both the developer and coastal zone manager is the absence of necessary data and accepted methodologies for estimating future supply needs for marine berthing. This paper describes a multi‐focii approach to the establishment of an information base and marina supply projections for the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Data on existing marina types, services, and facilities are obtained via fieldwork; future marina slip supply needs are estimated using a combination of several techniques and data sources. The study serves two purposes. First, it initiates the basis for improved management of marina development on Mississippi's Gulf Coast. Second, on a more theoretical level, it stimulates research toward developing and validating supply and demand projection techniques for marinas.     

Marine and coastal protected areas in Latin America: A preliminary assessment

Abstract

One approach to the management of coastal and marine areas is the establishment of protected areas (e.g., reserves, parks, sanctuaries). Under the general rubric of “marine reserves,”; this paper examines the Latin American experience with this strategy. A comprehensive table lists most, if not all, national or state declared parks or reserves. The table is organized by country. All Latin American nations have, to a varying extent, declared marine parks and protected areas. The authors review the sources or uses which have been “managed”; by marine reserves, the management approaches, uses, and problem which have been identified in achieving management objectives. The authors conclude with observations about the potential future utility of marine reserves as a management approach for areas and resources of the coastal and littoral zones of Latin America.     

Sewering the coast: Bane or blessing to marine water quality

Abstract

local wastewater management policies can be important tools for protecting marine water quality when coordinated with sound land use and environmental planning. that relationship is examined through a review of the point and nonpoint source pollution issues associated with centralized versus decentralized wastewater management approaches, sewerage extension and plant expansion effects, and sewerage management practices. we use information provided by 161 local jurisdictions in coastal regions of the southeastern united states and various secondary regions of the southeastern united states and various secondary sources. the article concludes with a discussion of policy implications and recommendations to improve the coordination of local sewerage extension/expansion practices and land use planning.     

A Race for Marine Space: Science,Values, and Aquaculture Planning in New Zealand

New Zealand (NZ) has developed a coastal management framework that includes large watersheds and territorial waters (out to 12 nautical miles). The article describes the developing conflicts associated with the biophysical and epistemological dimensions of expanding coastal marine space for aquaculture. We first review aquaculture policy in NZ, and recent evidence of the biophysical impacts from increasing terrestrial inputs on marine ecosystems. We provide a case study of conflict over a recent proposal to expand salmon aquaculture in the Marlborough Sounds, which covers some 4,000 km² of sounds, islands, and peninsulas. Based on information and data from interviews of stakeholders involved in the aquaculture planning, we describe three diverse epistemologies of science—client-based science, civic science, and Māori traditional ecological knowledge. We conclude the article with a critical review of how to better resolve spatial conflicts that often emerge in coastal management and planning.     

Implementing coastal zone management: 1972–1990

Abstract

The implementation history of the Coastal Zone Management Act offers insights into the process of long‐term intergovernmental policy implementation. This five‐stage history is explained as a coproduction process, in which coastal state, environmental, and development advocacy coalitions interacted with congressional committees and the federal coastal office to shape coastal policy and manage coastal development. The coproduction approach proved invaluable during the Reagan assault on the coastal program, when the states and Congress assumed responsibility for keeping the program alive. Acknowledging underlying stakeholder dynamics as the basis for coastal program evaluation could strengthen future coastal management implementation.     

Vulnerability of Caribbean Island Cemeteries to Sea Level Rise and Storm Surge

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports that rising seas by the end of this century will increase the severity of coastal flooding and erosion. The Caribbean region is home to many small islands that are vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge. Much of the literature examining impacts of sea level rise in the Caribbean focuses on ecosystems, infrastructure, and recreation. Few studies have examined how sea level rise will impact historic and culturally important places. In an effort to address this research gap, geographic information systems and crowd-sourced, georeferenced photographs were used to build a first-of-its-kind database of 542 Caribbean small island cemeteries. Vulnerable cemeteries were then identified based upon elevation, proximity to the ocean, and the coastal profile. Over one-fifth of the cemeteries surveyed are within 100 m of the coast. The highest concentrations of vulnerable cemeteries are on flat islands such as the Cayman Islands. Yet, some mountainous islands such as Saint Martin also have potentially vulnerable cemeteries. These findings suggest that the bereaved, cemetery managers, and managers of coastal areas that have cemeteries may have additional considerations when making long-term decisions about where and how to bury the deceased.     

How to Retreat: The Necessary Transition from Buyouts to Leasing

Abstract

Moving assets out of vulnerable areas, known as “retreat,” is a necessary but unpopular option when coastal hazards impact land. Most people prefer protection options. Governments and private land owners tend to adopt a “wait-and-see” approach for retreat. This may be because the time for retreat seems some way off, or because protection has not yet been ruled out, or to avoid unwelcome news. This policy void has allowed people to assume that government will offer to “buyout” property on generous terms after coastal hazards inevitably force the owner to relocate. The problem with that assumption is that (a) it is unaffordable as a solution for all at-risk properties and (b) it acts as an incentive to intensify development in locations vulnerable to coastal hazards. It is, in effect, a form of market distortion which promotes maladaptive behavior. We therefore need to retire that assumption by articulating a standard default arrangement for retreat. This essay suggests that government should establish a default position of renting land, rather than acquiring it, once assets are abandoned by private land owners. This provides sufficient leverage to protect the public interest and a level of financial assistance to the relocating land owner, while allowing markets to properly reflect risk and enabling coastal adaptation.