Valuing Estuarine Resource Services Using Economic and Ecological Models: The Peconic Estuary System Study

This article summarizes four integrated economic studies undertaken to contribute to resource preservation and restoration decisions for the Peconic Estuary System of Suffolk County, NY. Completed as part of the National Estuary Program, the studies apply distinct resource valuation methods to a wide range of resource issues. The principal goals of this article are to highlight different methodologies that may be used to assess nonmarket economic values in a coastal management context, and characterize differences in the results that one may expect from each approach. We also emphasize potential relationships among values estimated by different nonmarket methodologies, and comment on the implications of these relationships for the interpretation and use of economic value estimates.     

Role and Use of Technologies in Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Lessons from the European Demonstration Programme

Technologies are considered tools to increase the number of "available options" and to "enlarge the freedom of action" of society to achieve specific objectives. One such objective is sustainable development of the coastal zones. One way to achieve this is via integrated coastal zone management (ICZM): the integration of otherwise sectoral management activities. ICZM is not yet a widespread practice. Even in situations where integrated management is attempted, the role of technologies that might be deployed on the coastal zone to satisfy other societal needs or to provide a solution to specific problem, is not always adequately considered. True integration requires an understanding of how a technology is influenced by or impacts the surrounding natural, economic, and social environment. The present article describes an analysis of the role and use of technologies in the European Union Demonstration Programme on ICZM.     

Merging Socioeconomic Imperatives with Geospatial Data: A Non-Negotiable for Coastal Risk Management in South Africa

The current approach to coastal development set-back delineation in South Africa is producing high-tech empirical methodologies that attempt to pinpoint areas at risk from physical coastal processes and the subsequent positioning of set-backs in relation to these risk areas. Experience in the Western Cape province of South Africa has shown that this approach contributes only partially to coastal risk management. In the context of an urban and peri-urban environment, and bearing in mind that set-backs have significant socioeconomic implications, the development of a set-back line at the local scale requires an expansion beyond just relying on the numerical modeling of physical coastal processes. This research reveals that such an approach is parochial and socially detached and a more inclusive and integrated approach grounded in and spanning localized social, cultural, economic, political, and ecological intricacies of the coastal space is required. Fundamental to achieving this is a re-consideration of the broader project management processes applied in the development of set-backs. The article concludes with a set of principles and guidelines for determining set-backs in complex coastal contexts at the local scale.     

Geography and Coastal Management

This article presents an overview of the relationship between geography and coastal management. It explores the nature of geography as well as the geographical underpinnings of key notions within coastal management, in particular, “coast,” “conflict,” and “integration.” The article considers the integrated coastal management process and tracks the influence of geography on the development of the discipline's theory and practice, as well as its academic infrastructure. The article concludes that although geography both underpins and offers useful insights into coastal management, a challenge remains to explore in greater depth the benefits of applied geographical approaches to the management of coasts.     

The First Step for the Environmental Management of Australian Beaches: Establishing an Effective Policy Framework

Beach management and coastal management are interwoven and scale-dependent activities in Australia. Present coastal policies are broad and designed for large, national, and statewide scales. They specify ecologically sustainable development as the overarching goal for coastal management and provide the context for beach management. On smaller scales, an approach focusing on the reduction of geomorphic hazards as the basis of beach management was established by the Coastline Hazard Policy, with nonhazard aspects of beach management such as ecological, economic, and social concerns assuming secondary importance. Although beach management can occur effectively under these coastal management arrangements, better guidance is required to make this process as effective and efficient as possible. This guidance - the policy framework - could be better developed for beach management and better integrated with existing coastal management arrangements. While this policy development is not strictly necessary to achieve positive outcomes from beach management, it is necessary to effectively guide implementation of the existing broad coastal policies. Effective goals for beach management are yet to be thought out and clearly articulated in Australia. A good start would be to couple the present goals of ecologically sustainable development and hazards reduction into a coherent goal for beach management. A specific policy for beaches should be developed given the importance of beaches in Australia.     

Land Changes and Conflicts Coordination in Coastal Urbanization: A Case Study of the Shandong Peninsula in China

The coastal zone is an interaction region between land and ocean and an interface of geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere, as well as greatly affected by human activities. Driven by economic activities and increased population, urbanization is rapidly developing in coastal zones, and a series of land resource and environmental conflicts have occurred, especially in developing countries at times of economic transition. This article reports a case study of the Shandong Peninsula of East China. We analyze the land-use practices and land cover changes of six cities over a timeframe of nearly a decade. We then review the management conflict issues. The most commonly encountered conflicts fall into three categories: those between expanding constructed land and decreased cultivated land; those between land resource utilization and conservation; and those between increasing demand for land and degrading land quality. All in all, they reflect the fundamental conflicts between short-term economic development gains and long-term food security and ecosystem sustainability. This article puts forward an institutional approach to coordinate these conflicts so as to realize integrated and coordinated coastal management.     

The Role of Participation in the European Demonstration Projects in ICZM

A study on the role of participation in integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) was undertaken as part of the European Demonstration Programme in Integrated Coastal Zone Management. The study recommends that projects adopt the following criteria: a clear process, representativeness, openness, relevant techniques, sufficient resources, and shared learning. Participation procedures should be integrated with the technical process and mechanisms clearly related to the style and purpose of the project. A main conclusion is that although participation is important, it is not a panacea. While many of the risks involved may be common to consensus building, the study highlights those peculiar to coastal management, such as the historic autonomy of many ports, the fragmented nature of the tourism industry, and suspicion of experts among the maritime community. Finally, it is suggested that ICZM may be considered a suitable paradigm for sustainable development generally.     

Governing Coastal Spaces: The Case of Disappearing Science in Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Scientific knowledge is central to “good” governance of coastal spaces: developing methods through which the complexities of the coastal zone can be understood by stakeholders to improve the sustainable management of coastal systems. Enhancing our knowledge of the range of processes that shape coastal spaces and define the total behavioural environment of the system remains a primary challenge for the coastal research community. However, this article raises the argument that current approaches to Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)—the preferred governing framework for the coastal environment, do not give sufficient emphasis to this fundamental need. Improving the basic scientific knowledge that underpins policymaking at the coast is argued to be urgently needed. Issues such as that of developing a communality of the purpose and approach between stakeholders within the coastal zone (through conflict resolution and access to information, for example) seem to claim the rights of the integrated management research agenda. However, the very nature of ICZM as “worthwhile coastal management” requires that integrated management represents more than a governing framework. Successful integration in coastal management must also be underpinned by knowledge of the integrated behavior of the system. Science has an increasingly marginalized position within ICZM and as a result geographers, contributing knowledge of the patterns and processes of the human and environmental landscapes, are also becoming a disappearing breed in integrated coastal management.     

Integrated Environmental Modeling and Assessment of Coastal Ecosystems: Application for Aquaculture Management

This article presents an approach that couples coastal ecosystem modeling with integrated environmental assessment methodologies to support coastal management. The focus is to support the development of an ecosystem approach to aquaculture management including interactions with watershed substance loading. A Chinese bay, with intense aquaculture and multiple catchment uses, and where significant modeling efforts were undertaken is used as a case study. The ecosystem model developed for this bay is used to run scenarios that test the local management strategy for nutrient reduction. The corresponding ecological and economic impacts of the managers’ scenarios are analyzed by means of the Differential Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (ΔDPSIR) analysis. Emphasis is given to the analysis of the eutrophication process in the bay including present eutrophic condition and the expected changes due to the simulated scenarios. For this purpose, the Assessment of Estuarine Trophic Status (ASSETS) screening model is a valuable tool to interpret and classify the data and model outputs regarding eutrophication condition and to evaluate the manageable level of the nutrient loading entering in the bay.     

The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus)

This article examines the sociocultural, economic, and environmental causes of the decline of the artisanal fisheries in the rocky coast of Cape Creus (NW Mediterranean) over the past decades. The changes that have occurred over time have favored trawlers, purse-seiners, shellfish fisheries, and tourism activities, to the detriment of artisanal fisheries. This article shows that the establishment of a marine reserve in 1998 could not reverse the observed decline in the artisanal fisheries. This raises the necessity of implementing a fishery management plan integrated into a coastal management plan, which should accompany the habitat protection. These plans could assist in the maintenance and the sustainable development of the artisanal fishing sector in Cape Creus as well as in other Mediterranean coastal areas where artisanal fisheries are also declining.     

An Assessment of Coastal Development and Land Use Change Using the DPSIR Framework: Case Studies from the Eastern Cape,South Africa

Coastal areas are experiencing high levels of development, largely driven by a number of aesthetic and recreational factors, increased mobility, availability of disposable income for middle and upper income groups and the promise of job opportunities and improved economic well-being for lower income groups. As existing coastal urban nodes expand development “shifts” to less developed areas and places increasing pressure on the surrounding natural environment. This article considers the coastal zone of two municipalities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, with similar environmental characteristics but disparate socioeconomic and governance histories. It identifies and integrates the drivers of development and land use change in the coastal zone of these municipalities by means of an adapted Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) Framework. Development and land use change are driven by a combination of social, economic, and legislative factors that need to be considered for future management and planning in this unique dynamic system.     

Development of Beach Analysis Tools for Caribbean Small Islands

Beach erosion presents a hazard to coastal tourism facilities, which provide the main economic thrust for most Caribbean small islands (CSIs). Ad hoc approaches to addressing this problem have given way to the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) approach, which recommends data collection, analysis of coastal processes, and assessment of impacts. UNESCO's Coast and Beach Stability in the Caribbean (COSALC) project has provided most CSIs with an opportunity to monitor their beaches and collect over 10 years of data. Research has been directed at integrating these data with geographic information systems (GIS) and other information technologies to develop a prototype beach analysis and management system (BAMS) for CSIs. This article presents the results of phase I development of this effort, which includes the development of tools for integrating spatial and non-spatial coastal data, estimating long-term beach erosion/accretion and sand volume change trends at individual beaches, identifying erosion-sensitive beaches, and mapping beach erosion hazards. The Southeast Peninsula, St. Kitts, is used as a case study to develop these tools and demonstrate system functionality.     

U.S. Coastal Flood Insurance,Risk Perception,and Sea-Level Rise: A Perspective

This article uses coastal flood insurance policy in the United States to discuss the influence of historical and existing policy frameworks on the development of new policy directions in coastal management within a context of risk perception. It is presumed that under conditions of current and future sea-level rise, coastal planning will have to develop forward-looking policy instruments focused on managing human expectations, particularly the expectations of those living along the coast. Planning will be supported, in large part, by evolving scientific evidence on sea-level rise and the attendant hazards that accompany this phenomenon. It is likely that policy proposals for future coastal management will deviate to some degree from previous management practices. The role of previous management practices in supporting a perception of risk that deviates from actual risks is explored using historical and current coastal flood insurance policy in the United States as an example. The goal of this analysis is to highlight the importance of community risk perception, as a function of past policy practice, when considering new coastal management policy directions.     

Assessment of coastal zone issues in the Republic of Korea

Abstract

The physical characteristics of Korea have had a profound impact on the uses of the coastal zone that have, in turn, been determined by and reinforced the nation's economic development strategy. While coastal zone management in many developed economies is more heavily oriented toward environmental protection and the resolution of user conflicts, policies for coastal zone management in Korea have emphasized the role of coastal space and other resources for economic development and industrial needs. Increasing demand for land reclamation to provide ever‐increasing industrial sites and human settlements, traditional and future needs of the fishery, and concern for the environment have led to a vast array of competition and, finally, often to conflicts. The basic pattern of coastal zone use in Korea has changed from the linear expansion of coastal zone to integrated coastal uses. An increased number of critical coastal zone issues and interactions was reflected in the creation of new governance that dealt with coastal zone resources and environment.     

Sustainable Governance of Norwegian Aquaculture and the Administrative Reform: Dilemmas and Challenges

This article discusses the impact of the Norwegian government's administrative reform on the management of the Norwegian aquaculture industry and coastal areas. The 2010 reform of government administration strengthened the County Councils’ role in issues of aquaculture at the expense of the regional offices of the Directorate of Fisheries. The aim of the reform was to increase self-governance through decentralization. However, international trends in coastal zone and marine resource management are moving in the opposite direction, aiming at more integrated and ecosystem-based approaches involving the management of larger, rather than smaller, geographic regions. This article examines the possible effects of this reform in light of the move from government to governance, and in the context of a broad policy shift toward a more integrated, ecosystem-based management (EBM) of the coastal zone. Based on insights from multi-level and coastal zone governance debates, we argue that an unintended consequence of the Norwegian administrative reform could be increased fragmentation of the aquaculture governance system, as well as a reduced capacity to implement EBM-related measures. At the same time, the reform might improve coastal zone planning, although a further step toward integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) would require a greater delegation of authority to the County Councils.     

The Theory and Practice of Coastal Area Planning: Linking Strategic Planning to Local Communities

Integrated coastal management (ICM) has been slowly accepted over the last decade as a unifying approach for coastal planning and management throughout the world. Coastal planning aimed at achieving the objectives of ICM can be implemented by varying processes and faces many challenges. One major challenge for coastal planning is to adapt the well-developed theoretical principles of ICM to practical and understandable outcomes in local areas. Associated with this challenge is the need to balance coastal planning objectives for conservation and economic development of a nation or state/province with the objectives of the local community. This article describes a three-tiered approach to coastal planning in Victoria, Australia, which will be of value to other countries, particularly those with subnational coastal planning jurisdictions. This approach not only has the aim of balancing subnational (e.g., state government) and local objectives, but also of applying the theoretical concept of ICM in practice on the ground. In addition, the approach sets out to achieve a sense of ownership of the planning process by local communities by maximizing their involvement at all levels of planning and also by making the state strategy as easy to understand and follow as possible.     

Spatial Information Infrastructure for Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management in Canada

Access to current, comprehensive, and reliable spatial information is necessary for informed decision making in integrated coastal and ocean management. This need is being met through development of a marine spatial information infrastructure that encompasses both technological and institutional responses. This article traces Canada's experience in developing a marine spatial information infrastructure over the last 30 years starting with the compilation of coastal atlases, through the development of geographic information systems, to remote data acquisition instruments and Web mapping portals. Because of the plethora of initiatives, it has been essential to be selected and limit the number and choice of examples. The institutional response has lagged behind that of technological innovation and hinges on understanding users’ needs and decision support drivers, sustainability of institutional and individual champions, and, above all, cooperation and collaboration among the broad community of practice.     

A Tool for Coastal Setbacks Demarcation over Rough,Impermeable Shores: The Test Case of Kavala Coastline (Northern Greece)

Although setback zones and lines are considered as a powerful coastal zone management tool ensuring public access, protecting the coastal ecosystem and minimizing natural hazards over developments, the lack of a solid and objective Mediterranean methodological framework for coastal setbacks demarcation appears profound. Especially for countries like Greece, this deficiency leads to long legal disputes encouraging illegal construction on the coastline. In this article a methodology on coastal setbacks demarcation over rocky, impermeable shores is proposed, followed, and implemented along a Greek shoreline, serving as a pilot case study. The methodology is consistent with the requirements of the integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) Protocol and the Greek legislation (L. 2971/2001), aiming to determine the “highest winter waterline,” accounting for the tidal and storm surge effects, the sea-level rise due to climate change impact, the extreme offshore wind and wave analysis, and the maximum potential wave run-up. Such a tool may bridge the gap between legislative provisions and actual ICZM Protocol implementation improving regional coastal management and planning.     

Applying a Mediated Negotiation Framework to Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Conflict is intrinsic to coastal zone management, yet relatively few peer-reviewed studies have examined how coastal managers might apply conflict resolution processes in the coastal zone management (CZM) context. The authors believe that many of these disputes can be addressed by using a structured mediation model that involves face-to-face negotiation with a broad range of stakeholders to build consensus-based agreements for integrated coastal zone management (ICZM). To explore this further, the article examines four questions. First, it examines how CZM literature characterizes conflict and conflict resolution. Second, it looks at how essential principles from the field of alternative dispute resolution and environmental mediation can be best employed in the ICZM context. In particular, it explores the various elements of a stepwise agreement building model, a mediated negotiation process model the authors use in practice that bases its success on a foundation of four principles: representation, participation, legitimacy, and accountability. Next, it details three essential tools used in this process, stakeholder analysis, joint factfinding, and single-text negotiation, that the authors believe to be promising for developing and adopting stable, well-informed, and implementable agreements for ICZM. Finally, the article examines how these structuring principles and process strategies have been used in two recent case studies regarding the management of the San Francisco estuary and its tributaries.     

浅析港口工程地质勘察项目管理

为了适应当前的发展形势,又好又快地完成各项岩土工程勘察任务,需要考虑如何在保证质量的同时满足工期与经济效益的要求。着重阐述在港口工程地质勘察中,引进项目管理的方法,从地质钻探、士工试验和室内报告编写等方面提出流程化管理的思路,为实践中遇到的一些问题提供建议及参考。