Understanding transport mode choice for commuting: the role of affect

This study examines the relationship between positive and negative user valence and transport mode choice behaviour. We integrate latent attitudes ‘affect’ and ‘salience’ into transport mode choice models using the framework of integrated choice and latent variable modelling and simultaneous maximum likelihood estimation methods. The results are consistent with findings in similar travel behaviour and behavioural economics literature. The study extends the findings of previous research and has demonstrated that user sentiments about public transport mode and salient public transport experiences have a significant impact on travel mode choice behaviour. It was found that private motorised users are more sensitive to overcrowding and anti-social behaviours on PT than active and PT travellers. Key attitudinal indicators influencing individual transport choice behaviour are established to guide public policy. The key indicators of Affect and Salience must be analysed and addressed through public policy to enhance PT user experience and develop services and facilities to increase the utility of PT in-vehicle travel time.     

How to obtain a healthy journey to school

Danish children walk and cycle a lot and at the same time have one of the best child road safety records in the western part of world. Based on several studies, the paper describes how Denmark has obtained a good child road safety and why Danish children choose to walk and cycle. Child road safety has predominantly been improved due to higher seat belt use and many implemented local safety measures such as campaigns and physical safe routes to school projects. It is mostly safe routes to school projects that include speed reducing measures and signalisation of junctions that are successful. The distance from home to school is an important factor in children’s transport mode choice. Since about half of Danish children have less than 1.5 km to school the decentralised school structure with many fairly small schools is an important reason to the many walking and bicycle journeys. Road design and motorised traffic volumes do influence children’s mode choice, but to a rather limited extent.     

Cycleways and footpaths: What separation is needed for equivalent air pollution dose between travel modes?

Cycling and walking are being promoted in many urban areas as alternatives to motorised transport for health, environmental, and financial reasons. The reduced congestion and resulting decrease in the overall amount of pollution reduced can be expected to result in health benefits for the community. However, active commuters, due to their increased respiration rates and often increased travel times can expect to receive larger doses of air pollution compared with those using motorised forms of transport. However, given the large dropoff in concentrations away from a road, it can be expected that significant reductions can be achieved even with relatively small increases in separation between the path of cyclists/pedestrians and motor vehicles.This study presents a simple methodology for calculating the separation needed for cyclists and pedestrians to experience the same air pollution dose as car commuters. An example is given based on carbon monoxide (CO) data collected in a field campaign consisting of a car driver, a cyclist and a pedestrian travelling on a 2600 metre loop of road in Auckland. For this case study, the estimated distance from the centreline needed for cyclists and pedestrians to receive an equivalent dose of CO as motorists was found to range from 5.8 to 14.2 m depending on the commuting mode and the dispersion state of the atmosphere at the site. This was equal to a CO concentration reduction of 0.1–0.14 ppm per metre. Recommendations on facility modifications and route selections have been made to make active mode commuting safer.     

Quantifying the transport-related impacts of parental school choice in England

School travel is becoming increasingly car-based and this is leading to many environmental and health implications for children all over the world. One of several reasons for this is that journey to school distances have increased over time. This is a trend that has been reinforced in some countries by the adoption of so-called ‘school choice’ policies, whereby parents can apply on behalf of their child(ren) to attend any school, and not only the school they live closest to. This paper examines the traffic and environmental impacts of the school choice policy in England. It achieves this by analysing School Census data from 2009 from the Department for Education. Multinomial logit modelling and mixed multinomial logit modelling are used to illustrate the current travel behaviour of English children in their journey to school and examine how there can be a significant reduction in vehicle miles travelled, CO₂ emissions and fuel consumption if the ‘school choice’ policy is removed. The model shows that when school choice was replaced by a policy where each child only travelled to their ‘nearest school’ several changes occurred in English school travel. Vehicle Miles Travelled (VMT) by motorised transport fell by 1 % for car travel and 10 % for bus travel per day. The reduction in vehicle miles travelled could lead to less congestion on the roads during the morning rush hour and less cars driving near school gates. Mode choice changed in the modelled scenario. Car use fell from 32 to 22 %. Bus use fell from 12 to 7 %, whilst NMT saw a rise of 17 %. With more children travelling to school by walking or cycling the current epidemic of childhood obesity could also be reduced through active travel.     

Shifting from car to active transport: A systematic review of the effectiveness of interventions

IntroductionA promising way to stimulate physical activity is to promote the choice for active modes of transport (walking and cycling). Over the past years, several interventions and policies have been implemented to stimulate this mode shift. However, information concerning the effectiveness of these interventions and policies is still limited. The aim of the present study was to systematically review the effectiveness of interventions designed to stimulate a shift from car use to cycling or walking and to obtain insight into the intervention tools that have been used to promote and/or implement these interventions.MethodsFive databases were searched and articles published in English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish were included. Only studies that focussed on a mode shift from car use towards active transport in a general adult population, which were published in peer reviewed journals and which investigated effectiveness were included. Intervention tools used were categorized by using the model of Hoogerwerf & Herweijer, as either legal, economic (subsidy, reward system, penalty), communicative (written materials, behavioural tools) and physical tools (providing bicycles, providing better bicycle facilities at work, adjustment of the environment).ResultsNineteen studies met our inclusion criteria. Studies included described work-place-based interventions, architectural and urbanistic adjustments, population-wide interventions, and bicycle-renting systems. Nearly all studies (except three) showed positive effects concerning a mode shift. Most of the included studies used more than one intervention tool and the tools used differed between types of interventions. However, information about the statistical significance of these results was often lacking and the study methodologies used were not of high quality.ConclusionNearly all studies showed results in a positive direction. However, the quality of the included studies was mostly low and intervention characteristics were poorly described.     

Car ownership and attitudes towards transport modes for shopping purposes in Singapore

The heightening of issues, such as sustainable development and environmental pollution have resulted in many governments pursuing transport policies which aim to promote the use of public transport modes, including walking, as well as discourage the use of the car for various activities, such as shopping, work, recreation, etc. However, little has been done on understanding shoppers' perceptions of transport modes for shopping purposes. Particularly, not much research has been done on examining the attitudes of car owners and non-car owners towards transport modes for shopping purposes. Using Singapore as a study area, this study has attempted to analyse car owners and non-car owners' perceptions of the different types of transport modes (i.e., car, taxi, bus, mass rapid transit and walk) in their shopping trips. The research found that each transport mode has its own unique set of attributes. In addition, car owners and non-car owners portray different attitudes towards the public transport modes and the car. This calls for different strategies for these two groups of shoppers in encouraging them to use the public transport modes and restrain the use of the car.     

Traveler expectations and willingness-to-pay for Web-enabled public transport information services

Web-enabled public transport (PT) information systems that combine information on different PT modes, different PT companies and different geographical regions, can be built to improve the accessibility of public transportation. As the potential list of information aspects that can be included in such systems is long, it is interesting to examine the relative importance of different information aspects. This study reports the relative importance travelers attach to a range of information aspects. In addition, the willingness to pay for this information was examined by conducting a stated choice experiment, in which price was traded off against groupings of information aspects. The results of the study indicate that even though public transport travel information is highly price sensitive, travelers are willing to pay for it if the information systems provide additional functionality such as real-time information and, to a lesser extent, additional trip planning options.     

Urban transport in Germany: providing feasible alternatives to the car

With the second highest level of car ownership in the world, and the third highest population density in Europe, Germany has adopted a range of policies to balance the many private benefits of car use with its serious social and environmental problems. In order to ‘tame’ the car, most German cities have implemented a twofold strategy of expanding and improving pedestrian, bicycling and public transport alternatives simultaneously with restricting car use and making it more expensive. That has increased political acceptability since the car‐restrictive measures are not perceived as mere punishment of car drivers. The results of this coordinated urban transport strategy have been impressive. Germany, as a whole, has managed to increase public transport use and to stabilize the car share of modal split. Some cities, of course, have been more successful than others, and this paper examines three of the most successful cities: Münster, Freiburg and Munich. In each of the cities, the percentage of travel by bicycling, walking and public transport has been raised over the past 20 years, while the car's share of modal split has fallen. This article documents the range of policies used to restrict car use, both in Germany as a whole, and in the three case‐study cities in particular. The key to success is found to be mutually reinforcing transport and land‐use policies. It is the combination of a whole set of coordinated policies that explains the dramatic success in changing travel behavior.     

Policy analysis of third party electronic coupons for public transit fares

Mobile technologies are generating new business models for urban transport systems, as is evident from recent startups cropping up from the private sector. Public transport systems can make more use of mobile technologies than just for measuring system performance, improving boarding times, or for analyzing travel patterns. A new transaction model is proposed for public transport systems where travelers are allowed to pre-book their fares and trade that demand information to private firms. In this public-private partnership model, fare revenue management is outsourced to third party private firms such as big box retail or large planned events (such as sports stadiums and theme parks), who can issue electronic coupons to travelers to subsidize their fares. This e-coupon pricing model is analyzed using marginal cost theory for the transit service and shown to be quite effective for monopolistic coupon rights, particularly for demand responsive transit systems that feature high cost fares, non-commute travel purposes, and a closed access system with existing pre-booking requirements. However, oligopolistic scenarios analyzed using game theory and network economics suggest that public transport agencies need to take extreme care in planning and implementing such a policy. Otherwise, they risk pushing an equivalent tax on private firms or disrupting the urban economy and real estate values while increasing ridership.     

Modelling of motorised two-wheelers: a review of the literature

Motorised two-wheeler (MTW) has emerged as the most widely used transportation mode for short distance trips in many Asian and European countries because of its affordable price and flexibility in manoeuvring through traffic. Its small size and aggressive riding patterns can considerably affect the overall traffic flow characteristics and safety. Modelling the characteristic behaviour and complex movement patterns of motorised two-wheelers is essential due to their pronounced role in microscopic traffic simulations, traffic management strategies, safety evaluation, transport planning and intelligent transportation systems. This paper begins with an overview of the determinant factors used for MTW modelling, followed by a critical review of various modelling approaches that have been adopted to depict the movement patterns of MTWs. The review concentrates on (i) identifying the factors mostly studied with respect to MTW-research, (ii) discussing the potential and limitations of each modelling approach and (iii) reporting some of the aspects that need further consideration for modelling MTWs in heterogeneous mixed traffic streams. The findings of the paper suggest that an integrated approach can be more viable to depict the unique riding patterns of motorised two-wheelers and some possible directions for future studies are also proposed.     

The effect of non-recreational transport cycling on use of other transport modes: A cross-sectional on-line survey

Accurate modelling of the health and environmental benefits of non-recreational transport cycling requires information about its effects on the use of other transport modes. Relevant research has not focussed on cycling for transport in a general context (as opposed to bikeshare), nor allowed for multi-modal trips. The influence of trip- and personal-characteristics on whether cycling replaces car-driving have yet to be considered. The present study aimed to address these research gaps. An on-line cross-sectional survey was completed by 1525 Australians who cycle for transport at least once per week. For the most recent trip completed (at least partly) by bicycle participants provided trip distance, and percentage travelled by car, public transport (PT), and walking. They also provided the percentage travelled by each mode for the same trip before taking up transport cycling; and a hypothetical future trip when riding is not possible. Compared to the same trip before, fifty percent of recent trips reduced car use, and around 1/3 eliminated a 100%-car trip. Reduced car use was significantly less likely for trips under 7.5 km, commuting, females, respondents under 55, and regular cyclists. Reduced car use was less likely for respondents who started riding because it is flexible, and more likely for those who started riding to avoid parking. Car-use was reduced by an average of 6.2 km per trip, and each bicycle-km cycled replaced 0.5 car-km. Participants report that since taking up cycling, even when they cannot use their bike, they use cars less and use PT more compared to before they took up cycling. Results suggest that previous studies underestimated the extent to which transport cycling replaces car travel, and highlights trip types and population groups to target with cycling promotion strategies. Information about the per-trip and per-bicycle-km replacement of car, PT and walking may be used for more accurate estimation of the benefits of transport cycling than has hitherto been possible.     

Framing the Nexus of Globalisation,Logistics and Manufacturing in Europe

Abstract

Under the ongoing influence of globalisation, supply chains have changed significantly. New logistics and manufacturing systems have emerged, causing longer transport distances and increasing transport emissions. The existing research into the sustainability impacts of freight transport has largely viewed it as being a macro-level economic and political phenomenon and has ignored the interdependencies amongst micro-level economic actors, including firms and businesses in the private sector. In this paper, we presume that the lack of conceptualisation of freight transport in relation to wider institutional contexts and firm behaviour results in the lack of a holistic approach to understanding freight governance in the face of globalisation. We argue for the use of institutional economic geography lenses to elucidate the distribution networks of emerging logistics and manufacturing practices and its implications for freight transport. We illustrate our argument through a broad look at the European logistics and manufacturing practices and global production.     

The role of socio-economic,built environment and psychological factors in parental mode choice for their children in an Iranian setting

This research investigated the role of parental psychological and socio-economic factors as well as built environment for the choice of their children’s (primary school pupils, aged 7–9 years) travel mode to school in Rasht, Iran. A total of 1078 questionnaires were distributed (return rate of 80 percent) among pupils in nine primary schools in January 2014. A mixed logit (ML) model was employed due to its ability to test heterogeneity among parents and also to determine its possible sources. Results of random coefficient ML modelling showed that several psychological, socio-economic and built environment characteristics were significant factors in parental mode choice. Only walking time perception to school had a significant random normal distribution coefficient and no other psychological and socio-economic variable had a random effect. Further investigation by random coefficient analysis showed that the possible source of household preference heterogeneity could be to own two or more cars. Regarding psychological variables, strong parental worry about their children walking alone to school had a negative impact on allowing them to walk to school. Parents who evaluated poor contextual and design preconditions for walking tended to choose school service more than private car and walking. Parents with stronger environmental personal norms were more willing to allow their children to walk. The findings suggest that infrastructural measures, such as sidewalk facilities, neighborhood security and safety, encourage parents to allow children to walk to school. Information campaigns targeting environmental norms may increase walking among pupils in an Iranian setting.     

An analysis of soft transport policy measures implemented in Sweden to reduce private car use

Evaluations carried out in many countries show that soft policy measures in the form of personalized travel planning reduce private car use and increase travel by public transport. Sweden is a sparsely populated country that poorly supports public transport, a country with long distances, a cold climate, and a high concentration of private cars, which is why soft policy measures implemented in Sweden may be less cost-effective than has been found in other countries. Thirty-two programs using personalized travel planning were analysed with regard to stewardship, geographic area of application, choice of techniques of exerting an influence, and effects on car use and choice of alternative travel modes. None of the evaluations of the documented programs met the method requirements for such evaluations as regards design and effect measurement. Additionally, reporting was substandard as well as non-standard in the way that is desirable in order to enable comparative analyses. With reservations for these shortcomings, it is inferred that positive effects on a par with the results in other countries have been obtained in some of the implemented programs. It is however necessary to conduct evaluations which are of higher quality. The requirements which will then have to be applied are defined.     

Collecting a multi-dimensional three-weeks household time-use and activity diary in the Bandung Metropolitan Area,Indonesia

This paper describes a comprehensive panel data collection and analysis at household level, including detailed travel behaviour variables and comprehensive in-home and out-of-home activities, individual cognitive habits and affective behaviours, the rate of physical activity, as well as health related quality of life (QoL) information in the Bandung Metropolitan Area (BMA) of Indonesia. To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to collect an individual’s activity diary over an extended period as it captures the multi-tasking activities and multidisciplinary factors that underlie individual activity-travel patterns in a developing country. Preliminary analyses of the collected data indicate that different beliefs, anticipated emotions, support and attachment to motorised modes significantly correlate with different groups of occupation, gender, age, activity participation, multi-tasking activities, and physical health, but not with different social and mental health. This finding highlights the reason why implementing car reduction policies in Indonesia, without breaking or changing the individual’s habits and influencing his/her attitudes have not been fruitful. The results also show that endorsing more physical activities may result in a significant reduction in the individual’s motorised mode use, whilst individuals who demonstrate a tendency to use their spare time on social activities tend to have better social health conditions. Furthermore, undertaking multi-tasking out-of-home discretionary activities positively correlates with better physical health. All these highlight the importance of properly understanding and analysing the complex mechanisms that underlie these fundamental factors that shape individual daily activity-travel patterns in developing countries. This type of multidisciplinary approach is needed to design better transport policies that will not only promote better transport conditions, but also a healthier society with a better quality of life.     

Impacts of parental gender and attitudes on children’s school travel mode and parental chauffeuring behavior: results for California based on the 2009 National Household Travel Survey

Research has shown that parental attitudes are a significant predictor of children’s active commuting (walking or biking) to school. However, the impact of parental gender on parental attitudes, and the link between parental attitudes and the gender gap in parental chauffeuring behavior have not received much attention. This paper examines these questions by applying discrete choice models to California data from the 2009 National Household Travel Survey while controlling for a wide range of variables characterizing parents, their children, households, schools, and the local built environment. Our results, conveyed via odds ratios, show that mothers are more likely to have higher concerns about traffic volume, which in turn reduces the likelihood that their children will walk or bike to school. Moreover, even though parental attitudes significantly influence parental chauffeuring behavior, their ability to explain the gender chauffeuring gap is limited. When holding equal concerns, mothers are still more likely than fathers to chauffeur their children to school. Finally, while distance to school and several land use measures (e.g., population density, urbanization level, and percentage of renters) are statistically significant, the impact of an objective measure of walkability is quite small. These results suggest that interventions targeting an increase in children’s walking and biking to school should focus on the concerns of mothers, especially as they relate to traffic characteristics.     

Development of destination choice models for pedestrian travel

Most research on walking behavior has focused on mode choice or walk trip frequency. In contrast, this study is one of the first to analyze and model the destination choice behaviors of pedestrians within an entire region. Using about 4500 walk trips from a 2011 household travel survey in the Portland, Oregon, region, we estimated multinomial logit pedestrian destination choice models for six trip purposes. Independent variables included terms for impedance (walk trip distance), size (employment by type, households), supportive pedestrian environments (parks, a pedestrian index of the environment variable called PIE), barriers to walking (terrain, industrial-type employment), and traveler characteristics. Unique to this study was the use of small-scale destination zone alternatives. Distance was a significant deterrent to pedestrian destination choice, and people in carless or childless households were less sensitive to distance for some purposes. Employment (especially retail) was a strong attractor: doubling the number of jobs nearly doubled the odds of choosing a destination for home-based shopping walk trips. More attractive pedestrian environments were also positively associated with pedestrian destination choice after controlling for other factors. These results shed light on determinants of pedestrian destination choice behaviors, and sensitivities in the models highlight potential policy-levers to increase walking activity. In addition, the destination choice models can be applied in practice within existing regional travel demand models or as pedestrian planning tools to evaluate land use and transportation policy and investment scenarios.     

Driving to save time or saving time to drive? The enduring appeal of the private car

Use of the private car is often viewed as highly problematic. It is regularly associated with global physical, social and ecological harms such as climate change and the high incidence of lifestyle diseases, including heart disease. Attempts to address these problems generally include provision for day-to-day physical mobility based on alternatives to the private car. Labelled alternative transport, these modes include public transport, walking and cycling. Yet the private car continues as the preferred way to travel in many cities. A deeper understanding of this preference can reveal under explored sites of resistance to alternative transport modes.This paper contributes to these understandings by examining the role the car as a time saving device plays in sustaining automobility. Its central proposition is that individual decisions to drive are not necessarily motivated by the desire to save time. The paper draws on empirical evidence on the journey to work in Australia’s largest city, Sydney. Using a systematic process of trip substitution analysis, a group of people were identified who could use alternative transport to get to work in the same amount of time it currently takes them to drive. These people then participated in a series of in-depth interviews where deeper attachments and motivations for private car use were explored.This approach has enabled development of the multi-layered understanding that informs the central proposition that individual decisions to drive are not necessarily motivated by the desire to save time. Instead, automobility is sustained by appeals to flexibility and autonomy, as well as the interminable pull of the sensory experience provided by the cocoon of the car. This way of thinking about resistance to alternative transport exposes a series of inconsistencies between the expectations of those planning for, and those anticipated to one day use, alternative transport.