The Impact of Urban Freight Transport: A Definition of Sustainability from an Actor's Perspective

Abstract

This paper presents a definition of sustainable urban freight transport (SUFT), based on the existing theories and concepts, and develops an indicator set that describes SUFT. The definition of SUFT makes a categorisation of actions possible which enables actors to select effective strategies towards SUFT. The indicator set consists of two levels: impact indicators – which describe how the urban freight transport violates the principles of sustainability; and performance indicators – which describe different categories determining the characteristics and performance of the urban transport system. A literature study analyses the characteristics determining the performance of actors in the urban freight transport chain. Knowing the current state and improvement potential of the urban freight transport system are prerequisites for defining successful strategies and implementing effective actions.     

ELASTIC – A methodological framework for identifying and selecting sustainable transport indicators

There is significant reliance on sustainable transport indicators for monitoring and reporting progress towards sustainable transport. The selection of appropriate sustainability indicators presents a number of challenges however, not least because of the vast number of potential indicators available. To help address these challenges, this paper presents the Evaluative and Logical Approach to Sustainable Transport Indicator Compilation (ELASTIC) – a framework for identifying and selecting a small subset of sustainable transport indicators. ELASTIC is demonstrated with an application to the English Regions, UK.     

Monitoring Aircraft Turnaround Operations – Framework Development,Application and Implications for Airline Operations

Abstract

A real-time operation monitoring system – Aircraft Turnaround Monitoring System – is developed based on a system framework to monitor aircraft turnaround operations at an airport. Mobile computing devices (PDAs) and wireless network technology General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) are used to implement the real-time monitoring system for an airline. System implementation and test results indicate that real-time operation monitoring can potentially reduce delays occurring from airline operations. Proactive measures can be taken immediately by ground handling staff to reduce delays, once the risk of delays and potential delay propagation is identified. The availability of detailed operating data can help airlines identify the root delay causes from complex connections among aircraft, flight/cabin crew and passengers. In addition, these operating data also shed some light on the future development of aircraft routing algorithms in order to consider explicitly stochastic disruptions and delay propagation in airline schedule planning.     

Transition to a cyclable city: Latent variables affecting bicycle commuting

An understanding of the key factors influencing bicycle commuting is essential for developing effective policies towards a cyclable city. This paper contributes to this line of research by proposing a methodology for including cycling-related indicators in mobility surveys based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and applying an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to evaluate the structure of latent variables associated with bicycle commuting. The EFA identified six cycling latent variables: Lifestyle, Safety and comfort, Awareness, Direct disadvantages, Subjective norm, and Individual capabilities. These were complemented with a latent variable related to habit: Non-commuting cycling habit. Statistical differences and regression analysis were applied with the cycling latent variables. The study also includes the relationship between objective factors and bicycle commuting, which reveals minor associations. This methodology was applied to the “starter cycling city” of Vitoria-Gasteiz (Spain). The results confirm that in this context – in transition to a cyclable city – safety and comfort issues are not the main barriers for all commuters, although more progress needs to be made to normalise cycling. A set of customised policy initiatives is recommended in the light of the research findings, including marketing campaigns to encourage non-commuting cycling trips, bicycle measures to target social groups as opposed to individuals, bicycle-specific programs such as “Bike-to-work Days”, and cycling courses.     

Estimation of road transport related air pollution in Saint Petersburg using European and Russian calculation models

The paper analyzes Russian and European emission and dispersion models aimed at the estimation of road transport related air pollution on street and regional scale as exemplified with St. Petersburg, Russia. It demonstrates the results of model calculations of peak concentrations of main harmful substances (NО_X, CO and PM₁₀) along the St. Petersburg Ring Road at high traffic volume and adverse meteorological conditions (calm, temperature inversion) executed by means of a Russian street pollution model, and it evaluates the computed results against the measurements from monitoring stations. The paper also examines the ways of adaptation of the COPERT IV model – a software tool for calculation of air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions from road transport on regional or country scale – to the inventory conditions of the Russian Federation, compares the COPERT IV numerical estimates with the national inventory data. It also reveals the obstacles and possibilities in the harmonization of the Russian and European approaches.     

Assessment of air quality near traffic intersections in Bangalore city using air quality indices

Air quality indices are used for local and regional air quality management in many metro cities of the world. In the present study, air quality indices have been calculated using the US Environmental Protection Agency procedure to assess the status of ambient air quality near busy traffic intersections in Bangalore, India. The measured 24 h average criteria pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, respirable suspended particulate matter and suspended particulate matter for the period from 1997 to 2005 at three air quality monitoring stations are used for the development of AQIs. The result indicated that the air pollution at all the three air quality monitoring stations can be characterized as ‘good’ and ‘moderate’ for SO₂ and NO_x concentrations for all days from 1997 to 2004. Analysis of air quality indices values for both forms of suspended matter concentrations during 1999–2005 indicates 91% and 94% of the times days are in category ‘good’ and ‘moderate’. The yearly average air quality indices values of respirable suspended particulate matter and suspended particulate matter concentrations indicated decreasing trend and are coming under the category of ‘good’ and ‘moderate’ form the category of ‘poor’ and ‘very poor’.     

Transport Demand Management in Turkey: A Genetic Algorithm Approach

Abstract

This article proposes new models for estimating transport demand using a genetic algorithm (GA) approach. Based on population, gross national product and number of vehicles, four forms of the genetic algorithm transport planning (GATP) model are developed – one exponential and the others taking quadratic forms – and applied to Turkey. The best fit models in terms of minimum total average relative errors in the test period are selected for future estimation. Demand management strategies are proposed based on three scenarios: restricting private car use, restricting truck use and the simultaneous management of private car use and goods movement. Results show that the GATP model may be used to estimate transport demand in terms of passenger-kilometers traveled (pass-km), vehicle-kilometers traveled (veh-km) and ton-kilometers completed (ton-km). Results also show that the third scenario – simultaneous restrictions on private car use and goods movement – could reduce total veh-km by about 35% by 2025 in this study of Turkish rural roads.     

Getting around a license-plate ban: Behavioral responses to Mexico City’s driving restriction

License-plate-based driving restrictions are among the highest profile policies for local governments to address congestion and air pollution. Cities as varied as Sao Paulo, Paris, Tianjin, and New Delhi have enacted temporary or permanent restrictions to improve local air quality. Using household travel survey data and a research design based on the abrupt shift in how the policy applies to 10-year-old vs. 9-year-old vehicles, we evaluate the impact of Hoy No Circula, one of the earliest and most studied driving restrictions, in Mexico City. In line with previous studies, we find that Hoy No Circula has done little to reduce overall vehicle travel, but we reject the prevailing theory that its lack of success is due to perverse incentives for households to buy second cars. Instead, we highlight the range of other, less costly ways that people adjust behavior to avoid the restrictions. Although no single behavior dominates, most households — particularly those that own older, higher-polluting vehicles — do not use their car every weekday regardless of the restriction. As a result, it is relatively easy to shuffle travel from restricted days to unrestricted days and thus avoid the ban. Shuffling travel days is less costly, more immediately available, and far simpler for most households than buying a second car.     

The market valuation of new car quality

The study examines the question of whether the new car market values put a premium on superior quality cars while penalizing those cars that are of relatively inferior quality. The results suggest that the market does value cars that ex post have a much better than average or better than average reliability rating based on the criteria used in Consumer Reports. Moreover, cars that perform relatively poorly in terms of reliability ratings have a lower associated price, all other things equal. Finally, the results show that the market does value safety as a quality characteristic.     

Car sharing in Norwegian urban areas: Examining interest,intention and the decision to enrol

This article’s objective is to investigate the effects of sociodemographic and residential built environments, directly and indirectly through personality traits, attitudes and car ownership, on willingness to use car sharing in the case of Norway. This is done by examining multiple dimensions of the adoption process: the stated general interest and intention to participate in car sharing among non-members, as well as the decision to enrol as a car sharing user by comparing members to non-members. In this study, we analyse web survey data from 2414 residents from urban areas in Norway, using three structural equation models. Our findings indicate that the adoption of car sharing is complexly related to car ownership, with a noteworthy discrepancy indicating greater car sharing interest, but lower car sharing membership rates among car owners. We also find that environmental concerns exert a clear positive effect on all three dimensions of the adoption process. Being careful with money is linked negatively to interest and intention to participate, while being sociable and agreeable exerts no effect. Car sharers’ sociodemographic profiles are typically that of early adopters, but many of the effects, especially on interest, are mediated by car ownership, environmental consciousness and/or being careful with money, rather than directly on the sociodemographic profiles. Finally, we find car sharing to be more prominent in denser areas, but we did not discover a clear connection with access to public transport.     

Networking innovation in the European car industry: Does the Open Innovation model fit?

The demands of transportation have driven the automobile industry into an innovation race. Uncertain technological trends, long development cycles, highly capital-intensive product development, saturated markets, and environmental and safety regulations have subjected the sector to major transformations. The technological and organisational innovations related to these transformations necessitate research that can enhance our understanding of the characteristics of the new systems. The study investigates the applicability of the Open Innovation concept to a mature capital-intensive asset-based industry - the European automobile industry, which is preparing for a radical technological discontinuity. Purposely selected knowledgeable respondents were interviewed across seven European countries.The findings contribute to the understanding of the OI concept by identifying key obstacles to the wider adoption of the OI model in the European car industry, and signalling the importance of intermediaries and large incumbents for driving network development and OI practices as well as the need of new competencies to be developed by all players.     

The impact of transit station areas on the travel behaviors of workers in Denver,Colorado

Transit development is one planning strategy that seeks to partially overcome limitations of low-density single use car oriented development styles. While many studies focus on how residential proximity to transit influences the travel behaviors of individuals, the effect of workplace proximity to transit is less understood. This paper asks, does working near a light rail transit station influence the travel behaviors of workers differently than workers living near a station? We begin by examining workers’ commute mode based on their residential and workplace proximity to transit station areas. Next, we analyze the ways in which personal travel behaviors differ between those who drive to work and those who do not. The data came from a 2009 travel behavior survey in the Denver, Colorado metropolitan area, which contains 8000 households, 16,000 individuals, and nearly 80,000 trips. We measure sustainable travel behaviors as reduced mileage, reduced number of trips, and increased use of non-car transportation. The results of this study indicate that living near a transit station area by itself does not increase the likelihood of using non-car modes for work commutes. But if the destination (work) is near a transit station area, persons are less likely to drive a car to work. People who both live and work in a transit station area are less likely to use a car and more likely to take non-car modes for both work and non-work (personal) trips. Especially for persons who work near a transit station area, the measures of personal trips and distances show a higher level of mobility for non-car commuters than car commuters – that is, more trips and more distant trips. The use of non-car modes for personal trips is most likely to occur by non-car commuters, regardless of their transit station area relationship.     

Ex-post analysis of impacts of the car registration fee in the Czech Republic

Currently, the influence of transportation and its impact on environmental indicators throughout the world are increasing; however, governments of particular countries try to implement new economic instruments with the expectations of changing people’s behaviour or at least environmental parameters of the motor vehicle fleet. The Government of the Czech Republic introduced a new economic instrument, which came into force on 1 January 2009 and was inspired by similar environmental taxes in Member States of the European Union – the car registration fee, which is based on emission parameters of cars. The main target of this fee has been to change the structure of the passenger car fleet in the Czech Republic, particularly to support new registrations of new passenger cars with better environmental characteristics and to decrease the share of new registrations of used passenger cars. This article focuses on an ex-post analysis of impacts of the car registration fee on the structure of the passenger car fleet in the Czech Republic and its environmental characteristics in the first 3 years after the legal mandate of the fee. The case study is based on a correlation analysis and an analysis of statistical data from official sources in the Czech Republic. The impacts of the car registration fee on both the structure of the passenger car fleet in the Czech Republic and the environmental characteristics of new registrations are significant. For the first time since 2004, the number of new registrations of new cars was higher in the period 2009–2011 than the number of new registrations of used cars. Moreover, the share of alternative fuel cars in the passenger car market is increasing and the emissions from private car transport are decreasing.     

Model aided policy development for the market penetration of natural gas vehicles in Switzerland

Introduction of alternative fuels in the passenger car fleet is widely discussed in the light of emission reductions. Worldwide experiences show that the market introduction depends on the actions of many stakeholders, like car industry, fuel companies and consumers. The process demands well-timed actions and investments, whilst economic chances and risks are distributed highly unequally. Policy makers set the framework conditions, although the influence of the height and timing of subsidies, tax reductions and other stimulation policies are not well understood yet.The market introduction of alternative fuel vehicles was studied with the example of natural gas cars in Switzerland. Stakeholder analysis and system dynamics modeling techniques were used to characterize the system. Analyses identify difficulties and chances in the market penetration process of natural gas cars. For example, a critical balance between fueling station upgrade investments and natural gas car sales is needed. Further, it is found that large time delays exist between strategic policy actions and frequently used market penetration indicators (e.g. car sales and infrastructure expansion), limiting the ability of policy makers to assess the performance of their strategy. Referring to elements of the Balanced Scorecard approach, a set of five alternative indicators is proposed to better measure the performance of the implemented strategy.     

Evaluation of traffic data obtained via GPS-enabled mobile phones: The Mobile Century field experiment

The growing need of the driving public for accurate traffic information has spurred the deployment of large scale dedicated monitoring infrastructure systems, which mainly consist in the use of inductive loop detectors and video cameras. On-board electronic devices have been proposed as an alternative traffic sensing infrastructure, as they usually provide a cost-effective way to collect traffic data, leveraging existing communication infrastructure such as the cellular phone network. A traffic monitoring system based on GPS-enabled smartphones exploits the extensive coverage provided by the cellular network, the high accuracy in position and velocity measurements provided by GPS devices, and the existing infrastructure of the communication network. This article presents a field experiment nicknamed Mobile Century, which was conceived as a proof of concept of such a system. Mobile Century included 100 vehicles carrying a GPS-enabled Nokia N95 phone driving loops on a 10-mile stretch of I-880 near Union City, California, for 8 h. Data were collected using virtual trip lines, which are geographical markers stored in the handset that probabilistically trigger position and speed updates when the handset crosses them. The proposed prototype system provided sufficient data for traffic monitoring purposes while managing the privacy of participants. The data obtained in the experiment were processed in real-time and successfully broadcast on the internet, demonstrating the feasibility of the proposed system for real-time traffic monitoring. Results suggest that a 2–3% penetration of cell phones in the driver population is enough to provide accurate measurements of the velocity of the traffic flow. Data presented in this article can be downloaded from http://traffic.berkeley.edu.     

Investigation on lowering commuters’ in-cabin exposure to ultrafine particles

To determine ways to reduce commuters’ ultrafine particle exposure, factors such as ventilation condition, mechanical airflow rate, driving speed, cabin air filter quality, and cabin air filter use are examined. The results show that the in-cabin to on-roadway ratio is reduced by 20% when the fan is set to recirculation-on versus when set to recirculation-off because fewer ultrafine particles are exchanged between the inside and outside of the cabin. Also, when the fan is set to recirculation-off, the ratio is reduced by 40% at lower mechanical airflow rates. The thickest cabin air filter resulted in a 30% in-cabin to on-roadway ratio decrease compared with the thinnest. Thus, driving conditions with the least UFP in-cabin to on-roadway ratio is when a vehicle is operating with a high efficiency cabin filter, the ventilation set to fan-on and recycling is recirculation on, and at a high ventilation airflow rate. Furthermore, recirculating in-cabin air through a high efficiency particulate air filter was found to significantly reduce in-cabin UFP exposure.     

What cognitive mechanisms predict travel mode choice? A systematic review with meta-analysis

Reduced private car use can limit greenhouse gas emissions and improve public health. It is unclear, however, how promotion of alternative transport choices can be optimised. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to identify potentially modifiable cognitive mechanisms that have been related to car use and use of alternative transport modes. A qualitative synthesis of measures of potentially modifiable mechanisms based on 43 studies yielded 26 conceptually distinct mechanism categories. Meta-analyses of associations between these mechanisms and car use/non-use generated 205 effects sizes (Pearson’s r) from 35 studies. The strongest correlates of car use were intentions, perceived behavioural control, attitudes and habit. The strongest correlates of alternative transportation choices were intentions, perceived behavioural control and attitudes. Implications for researchers and policy implementation are discussed.     

The ambivalence of ridesharing

Ridesharing is quite a popular topic of discussion among transport authority personnel. It is perceived to be a viable alternative to classical modes of transportation, and receives a great deal of political support from transport planners. However, not much objective information is available on ridesharing behaviors. We use travel survey data to study the evolution of the ridesharing market in an urban area. Our study is based on data from four large-scale OD surveys conducted in the Greater Montreal Area (1987, 1993, 1998 and 2003). In the latest survey conducted in Montreal, car passengers were asked to identify the driver who gave them the opportunity to travel in this way. Their answers were classified according to the type of driver; for instance, a member of their household, a neighbor or a co-worker. We use this information to calibrate a model matching car passengers and car drivers belonging to the same household. This will be referred to as IHHR (intra-household ridesharing). Preliminary results reveal that approximately 70% of all trips made by car passengers are the result of IHHR. Furthermore, around 15% of those trips are questionable, in that they were exclusively generated for another individual’s purposes, consequently generating an additional trip for the journey back home. Moreover, this percentage increased over time. Objective data regarding ridesharing and its evolution in an urban area will undoubtedly help decision makers gain a clearer profile of this means of travel and help to realign attitudes on the issue.

Integrating vehicle positioning data in quality control programs in public transit: a European perspective

Abstract

The purpose of this paper was to show how vehicle positioning data collected through global positioning systems (GPS) or similar applications can be used in quality control programs of public transit operators to better assess the quality and performance of transportation services, and improve them. The paper describes the concept of the integration between quality control programs and vehicle monitoring systems, presents a case study where the concept has been successfully implemented, and discusses the benefits from the adoption of such an approach. The implementation of the concept is characterized by efficiency, accuracy, reliability, and optimization: efficiency in terms of data flow; accuracy and reliability in terms of quality and performance indicator values; and optimization in terms of optimum use of the available information technology infrastructure. The paper places particular emphasis on aspects relating to the interface between urban transportation services, vehicle positioning technology, and policy-making.     

Triangulation of two methods measuring the impacts of a free-floating carsharing system in Germany

This article reports on two different methods applied in the same survey (N = 1881) to measure the impact of the carsharing system car2go on other transportation modes in Ulm, Germany. The first method calculated how the mobility behavior of respondents would hypothetically be at the present time if car2go was not available. The second method determined the respondents’ past mobility behavior before using car2go. Confounding circumstances were corrected in both approaches through different mechanisms. Comparable methods calculating carsharing impacts have only been applied individually in past studies. This is the first study applying two measurement methods within the same survey, which enables a triangulation. As other influencing parameters were equal (e.g. sampling frame, nonresponse bias, mode of asking, point in time of the survey), the deviating results are assumed to have resulted from the different measurement techniques. The findings indicate a primacy effect (disproportionally high selection of first answer options) having influenced the first measurement and an overestimation of the impact on total kilometers travelled in the second measurement. The comparative findings of this dual-measurement could contribute to research designs of greater precision in future work on carsharing impacts.