Overcoming barriers to cycling: understanding frequency of cycling in a University setting and the factors preventing commuters from cycling on a regular basis

Much local and regional transport policy is attempting to increase cycling as an everyday mode of travel through infrastructure changes, education initiatives, and safety campaigns. While considerable research has examined the influence of the built form on cycling, less research has examined the barriers that prevent people who wish to cycle more (as part of their routine) from doing so. This study examines several factors influencing the frequency by which people do (and do not) cycle in a campus setting in a large metropolitan area. Mixed methods reveal differences between barriers to cycling as well as the relative strength of these barriers across categories of age, sex, and current mode used. A multinomial logit model, which controls for residential self-selection effects, predicts whether and how often a respondent cycles based on socio-demographic and trip characteristics. The presence of cycle paths is found to be strongly associated with a higher frequency of cycling commutes. Additionally, an analysis of stated barriers reveals effort and a lack of safety as the most important barriers to potential cyclists. Finally, a qualitative analysis of respondents’ open-ended responses confirms the influence of bicycle paths, but reveals other factors such as the importance of improved interactions among various street users. Findings from this research can be of benefit to transportation engineers and planners who are aiming to increase the use of cycling among various groups of commuters.     

Short-term planning and policy interventions to promote cycling in urban centers: Findings from a commute mode choice analysis in Barcelona,Spain

BackgroundCycling for transportation has become an increasingly important component of strategies to address public health, climate change, and air quality concerns in urban centers. Within this context, planners and policy makers would benefit from an improved understanding of available interventions and their relative effectiveness for cycling promotion. We examined predictors of bicycle commuting that are relevant to planning and policy intervention, particularly those amenable to short- and medium-term action.MethodsWe estimated a travel mode choice model using data from a survey of 765 commuters who live and work within the municipality of Barcelona. We considered how the decision to commute by bicycle was associated with cycling infrastructure, bike share availability, travel demand incentives, and other environmental attributes (e.g., public transport availability). Self-reported and objective (GIS-based) measures were compared. Point elasticities and marginal effects were calculated to assess the relative explanatory power of the independent variables considered.ResultsWhile both self-reported and objective measures of access to cycling infrastructure were associated with bicycle commuting, self-reported measures had stronger associations. Bicycle commuting had positive associations with access to bike share stations but inverse associations with access to public transport stops. Point elasticities suggested that bicycle commuting has a mild negative correlation with public transport availability (−0.136), bike share availability is more important at the work location (0.077) than at home (0.034), and bicycle lane presence has a relatively small association with bicycle commuting (0.039). Marginal effects suggested that provision of an employer-based incentive not to commute by private vehicle would be associated with an 11.3% decrease in the probability of commuting by bicycle, likely reflecting the typical emphasis of such incentives on public transport.ConclusionsThe results provide evidence of modal competition between cycling and public transport, through the presence of public transport stops and the provision of public transport-oriented travel demand incentives. Education and awareness campaigns that influence perceptions of cycling infrastructure availability, travel demand incentives that encourage cycling, and policies that integrate public transport and cycling may be promising and cost-effective strategies to promote cycling in the short to medium term.     

How does air pollution influence cycling behaviour? Evidence from Beijing

It is widely believed air pollution is an obstacle to cycling as it has negative effects on cyclists’ health outcomes and deteriorates their cycling experiences. However, the empirical studies investigating the impact of air pollution on cycling behaviour remains scarce. The aim of this paper is to fill the gap by looking at Beijing as a case study. The authors conducted a survey of 307 cyclists on the days with different levels of air quality in terms of concentration of PM_2.5 in 2015. The results show that in the polluted weather, those who persist in cycling are more likely to be male, over 30 years old, lower income or those who travel short distances. Specifically, female cyclists have a higher tendency to shift from cycling to public transit than the males and medium and high-income earners are more likely to shift to using a car than low income earners. The residents’ subjective perceptions of safety and comfort have major effects on their cycling behaviour. A higher perception of comfort and safety is related to a higher possibility of continuing cycling when air quality became polluted. Cycling for commuting trips is less likely to be replaced by other modes than cycling for non-commuting trips, such as shopping. Results of this study reveal that improving air quality in a metropolitan area such as Beijing has co-benefits of cycling renaissance. The huge investments into cycling infrastructure should be integrated with policies designed to create an attractive environment for cycling.     

Multimodal travel groups and attitudes: A latent class cluster analysis of Dutch travelers

For developing sustainable travel policies, it may be helpful to identify multimodal travelers, that is, travelers who make use of more than one mode of transport within a given period of time. Of special interest is identifying car drivers who also use public transport and/or bicycle, as this group is more likely to respond to policies that stimulate the use of those modes. It is suggested in the literature that this group may have less biased perceptions and different attitudes towards those modes. This supposition is examined in this paper by conducting a latent class cluster analysis, which identifies (multi)modal travel groups based on the self-reported frequency of mode use. Simultaneously, a membership function is estimated to predict the probability of belonging to each of the five identified (multi)modal travel groups, as a function of attitudinal variables in addition to structural variables. The results indicate that the (near) solo car drivers indeed have more negative attitudes towards public transport and bicycle, while frequent car drivers who also use public transport have less negative public transport attitudes. Although the results suggest that in four of the five identified travel groups, attitudes are congruent with travel mode use, this is not the case for the group who uses public transport most often. This group has relatively favorable car attitudes, and given that many young, low-income travelers belong to this group, it may be expected that at least part of this group will start using car more often once they can afford it. Based on the results, challenges for sustainable policies are formulated for each of the identified (multi)modal travel groups.     

Route switching behavior on freeways with the provision of different types of real-time traffic information

This study investigates route switching behavior on freeways in reaction to the provision of different types of real-time traffic information. The experimental design of the stated preference survey is based on four types of real-time information provided to travelers who were randomly selected at rest areas. The four types of real-time information defined in this paper are qualitative, quantitative, qualitative guidance, and quantitative guidance. The bounded rationality framework, also known as indifference band approach, is applied to model the freeway route switching behavior. Two important variables, travel time and travel cost, are included in the indifference band. In this study, the best route switching rule, travelers’ current routes as compared to the best route, is investigated to further provide valuable insights into freeways travelers’ route switching behavior with the provision of different types of real-time traffic information.     

The relation between bicycle commuting and non-work cycling: results from a mobility panel

This study aims to establish whether or not bicycle commuting and cycling for other purposes (e.g. shopping, visiting friends) are related over time. Using previously gathered panel data (the Dutch mobility panel) these relationships are revealed by (1) a series of conditional change models and (2) a latent transition model. The conditional change models indicate that, with a lag of 1 year and controlling for a range of background characteristics, bicycle commuting and non-work cycling (in number of weekly trips) have a positive reciprocal influence on each other. The models show that work-related factors, such as the distance to work or whether a person receives a travel allowance, affect not only bicycle commuting but also non-work cycling. The latent transition model indicates that people can be clustered into four groups: non-cyclists, non-work cyclists, all-around cyclists and commuter cyclists. This model shows that people with a consistent propensity to not cycle at all (non-cyclists) or to cycle for both work and non-work purposes (all-around cyclists) are most stable in their travel behavior. Non-work cyclists and commuter cyclists are less stable in travel behavior. The model also shows that all-around cyclists are not (significantly) affected by a change in the distance to work. The article concludes with several directions for future research.     

A bi-objective cyclist route choice model

It is widely acknowledged that cyclists choose their route differently to drivers of private vehicles. The route choice decision of commuter drivers is often modelled with one objective, to reduce their generalised travel cost, which is a monetary value representing the combined travel time and vehicle operating cost. Commuter cyclists, on the other hand, usually have multiple incommensurable objectives when choosing their route: the travel time and the suitability of a route. By suitability we mean non-subjective factors that characterise the suitability of a route for cycling, including safety, traffic volumes, traffic speeds, presence of bicycle lanes, whether the terrain is flat or hilly, etc. While these incommensurable objectives are difficult to be combined into a single objective, it is also important to take into account that each individual cyclist may prioritise differently between travel time and suitability when they choose a route.This paper proposes a novel model to determine the route choice set of commuter cyclists by formulating a bi-objective routing problem. The two objectives considered are travel time and suitability of a route for cycling. Rather than determining a single route for a cyclist, we determine a choice set of optimal alternative routes (efficient routes) from which a cyclist may select one according to their personal preference depending on their perception of travel time versus other route choice criteria considered in the suitability index. This method is then implemented in a case study in Auckland, New Zealand.The study provides a starting point for the trip assignment of cyclists, and with further research, the bi-objective routing model developed can be applied to create a complete travel demand forecast model for cycle trips. We also suggest the application of the developed methodology as an algorithm in an interactive route finder to suggest efficient route choices at different levels of suitability to cyclists and potential cyclists.     

Active travel as a pro-environmental behaviour: An integrated framework

A travel mode may be chosen due to its emotional appeal (affective motive) or to express social status (symbolic motive). Previous studies have overlooked the role of such motives in active mode use as pro-environmental behaviour. This study aims to examine the role of symbolic and affective motives, together with other significant theoretical perspectives, to explain the share of active modes of transport in trips to the university. It adds to the previous literature by considering the share of active modes of transport in different seasons. We collected a total of 316 completely filled questionnaires (response rate = 75.4 percent) from a cross-sectional self-administered survey in February 2019 in Trondheim, Norway. Among the psychological variables related to active mode use, only affective motives were found significant in both summer and winter. Environmental self-identity predicted both types of motives. No evidence suggested that personal environmental norms and attitudes towards transportation significantly explained active mode share, although car-related subjective norms reached significance. Furthermore, there was no evidence that environmental attitudes towards transportation had a mediating effect between motives and active mode use. Cycling journey time between place of residence and campus was found significant in the share of active modes of transport in both seasons. The results have important ramifications for the provision of relevant regulations and raising positive support from society to enhance the share of active modes of travel to the university.     

The use of self-monitoring solutions amongst cyclists: An online survey and empirical study

Self-monitoring has been shown to be one of the most efficient behaviour change techniques to promote physical activity. However, there has been no research on the exact nature and impact of using various self-monitoring solutions (e.g. cycle computer, cadence monitor, smartphone’ physical activity apps) amongst cyclists. Initially, an online survey was conducted with 227 adults who did or did not use self-monitoring solutions with their cycling. We found that the most important features for cyclists who use self-monitoring are: time it takes to travel, cycling speed, and distance covered. In contrast, cyclists who do not use self-monitoring perceived features related to location (e.g. directions with maps) as the most important ones. In a subsequent study we included self-monitoring solutions as a part of mixed-design, small-scale, longitudinal intervention aimed at changing transportation patterns. We found that self-monitoring is mainly suitable for performance oriented cyclists rather then recreational cyclists. We discuss the implications of those results for designing interventions to promote cycling.     

Engineering condition assessment of cycling infrastructure: Cyclists’ perceptions of satisfaction and comfort

The UK National Cycle Network comprises 23,660 km of cycling and walking paths of which a significant percentage is dedicated off-road infrastructure. This represents a significant civil engineering infrastructure asset that currently contributes to the provision of a sustainable transport mode option nationwide. Commuting and recreational cyclists have observed the often hazardous conditions on these paths. There are various simple measures that could be taken to improve the maintenance of such off-road paths. Reliance on walk-over surveys (direct visual inspection) and path users notifying the local authority may not be tackling maintenance in a resource efficient manner. The proposed inspection method includes the use of an instrumented bicycle to examine cycle path condition through user perception of satisfaction and quality. A questionnaire was conducted to identify the attributes of off-road cycling infrastructure people find most important in relation to their personal satisfaction. An exploratory factor analysis was undertaken on perception study data to elucidate the determination of the variables associated with perceived user satisfaction. The study has shown that people find maintenance issues to be of high importance, especially surface issues. From exploratory factor analysis of results, satisfaction has been found to load with comfort and safety. Field testing was then conducted using subjective user opinions and objective vibration data. These results were then used to assist the creation of dedicated user perception based surface condition rating-scales.     

The influence of individuals’ environmental attitudes and urban design features on their travel patterns in sustainable neighborhoods in the UK

This paper explores the influence of individuals’ environmental attitudes and urban design features on travel behavior, including mode choice. It uses data from residents of 13 new neighborhood UK developments designed to support sustainable travel. It is found that almost all respondents were concerned about environmental issues, but their views did not necessarily ‘match’ their travel behavior. Individuals’ environmental concerns only had a strong relationship with walking within and near their neighborhood, but not with cycling or public transport use. Residents’ car availability reduced public transport trips, walking and cycling. The influence of urban design features on travel behaviors was mixed, higher incidences of walking in denser, mixed and more permeable developments were not found and nor did residents own fewer cars than the population as a whole. Residents did, however, make more sustainable commuting trips than the population in general. Sustainable modes of travel were related to urban design features including secured bike storage, high connectivity of the neighborhoods to the nearby area, natural surveillance, high quality public realm and traffic calming. Likewise the provision of facilities within and nearby the development encouraged high levels of walking.     

Bicycling renaissance in North America?: Recent trends and alternative policies to promote bicycling

Over the past two decades, the number of bicycle trips in the United States has doubled. Since 48% of trips by all modes in American cities are shorter than three miles, the potential for further growth in bicycling seems enormous. So far, efforts to promote bicycling have focused on building bike paths and bike lanes. Although necessary, separate cycling facilities must be complemented by a comprehensive program to make all roads bikeable, through both physical adaptations and enforcement of cyclists' right to use the road. It seems likely that cycling will continue to grow in North America, but that its mode share will remain far lower than levels in northern Europe. Bicycling in Canada and especially the United States is impeded by the lack of a tradition of cycling for utilitarian purposes and by the marginal legal, cultural and infrastructure status of cyclists in both countries' automobile-based transport systems. As long as car use remains cheap and transportation policy remains dominated by motoring, bicycles will continue to be used primarily for recreation and not for daily urban travel in North America.     

Who cycles more? Determining cycling frequency through a segmentation approach in Montreal,Canada

The decision to cycle frequently in an urban setting is a complex process and is affected by a variety of factors. This study analyzed the various factors influencing cycling frequency among 1707 cyclists from Montreal, Canada using an ordinal logistic regression. A segmentation of cyclists is used in a series of ordinal logistic models to better understand the different impacts of variables on the frequency of cycling among each group of cyclists for commute and for utilitarian purposes. Our models show a variation in the impacts of each dependent variable on frequency of cycling across the various segments of cyclists. Mainly making cyclists feel safe not only on bicycle specific infrastructure but also on regular streets, emphasizing the low cost, convenience and improving the opinion on cycling in the population are effective interventions to increase bicycle usage. Also, it was shown that women were less likely to cycle to work than men, but more likely to cycle for other utilitarian trips, pointing at the presence of specific barriers to commuting for woman. Although the findings from this study are specific to Montreal, they can be of interest to transportation planners and engineers working toward increasing cycling frequency in other regions.     

Determining bicycle infrastructure preferences – A case study of Dublin

This paper examines infrastructure preferences for cyclists and determines the factors that have the greatest influence on the correlation between the level of cycling confidence and preferred types of infrastructure and route characteristics. A stated preference survey is used to gauge preferences for a range of infrastructure types and route characteristics in Dublin. Facilities that were segregated from traffic are the preferred form of cycling infrastructure, regardless of cycling confidence. Routes through residential streets and parks are the second choice, where no specific infrastructure is provided with the exception of improvements in way-finding.     

Re-cycling a city – Examining the growth of cycling in Dublin

In the past few decades much research has been conducted on the increasing numbers of commuters taking up cycling to work. This modal shift has been encouraged by pro-cycling policies to increase the attractiveness of cycling and the construction of new cycling infrastructure. In Dublin, several policies have been applied such as a bike rental scheme, bicycle-purchasing schemes, reducing speed limits and the construction of segregated cycle lanes to promote cycling. This paper seeks to examine what, if any, impact these policies have had on cycling rates in Dublin. This paper compares census data from 2006 and 2011 to determine how cycling rates have changed and if the demographics of cyclists have changed in the city. The results presented in the paper show that cycling rates have increased in Dublin and that a greater percentage of females, those in higher age and socio-economic groups are cycling to work on a regular basis. The analysis presented in this paper identifies groups of individuals that have recently shifted to cycling to work, by identifying who these people are, policymakers can tailor strategies to target these groups to encourage others in these groups to take up cycling.     

What’s your type: a multidimensional cyclist typology

Increasing bicycle use for utilitarian trips is a common city objective for health and environmental improvement and congestion reduction, but cyclists react heterogeneously to interventions and infrastructure. Understanding cyclist types helps in comprehending and planning for this diverse population. This study uses data from 2004 surveyed Montreal cyclists to generate a multidimensional cyclist typology based on seven factors derived from 35 variables, mostly proven determinants of the intensity of bicycle usage. The analysis revealed four distinct cyclist types: dedicated cyclists, path-using cyclists, fairweather utilitarians, and leisure cyclists. The cycling frequencies of each group respond differently to potential interventions and vary within commuting rate ranges with apparent minima and maxima. Building a network adapted to different cyclist types and emphasizing its convenience, flexibility and speed, could be an effective strategy to increase cycling mode share and frequency among the various groups. Findings from this study can be of benefit to transportation engineers, planners and policy makers as they help in better understanding the impacts of various interventions on the different groups of cyclists.     

Traffic dynamics in a bi-modal transportation network with information provision and adaptive transit services

This paper has two major components. The first one is the day-to-day evolution of travelers’ mode and route choices in a bi-modal transportation system where traffic information (predicted travel cost) is available to travelers. The second one is a public transit operator adjusting or adapting its service over time (from period to period) based on observed system conditions. Particularly, we consider that on each day both travelers’ past travel experiences and the predicted travel cost (based on information provision) can affect travelers’ perceptions of different modes and routes, and thus affect their mode choice and/or route choice accordingly. This evolution process from day to day is formulated by a discrete dynamical model. The properties of such a dynamical model are then analyzed, including the existence, uniqueness and stability of the fixed point. Most importantly, we show that the predicted travel cost based on information provision may help stabilize the dynamical system even if it is not fully accurate. Given the day-to-day traffic evolution, we then model an adaptive transit operator who can adjust frequency and fare for public transit from period to period (each period contains a certain number of days). The adaptive frequency and fare in one period are determined from the realized transit demands and transit profits of the previous periods, which is to achieve a (locally) maximum transit profit. The day-to-day and period-to-period models and their properties are also illustrated by numerical experiments.     

Costs and benefits of a bicycle helmet law for Germany

This study presents a cost–benefit analysis of a law requiring cyclists to wear a helmet when riding a bicycle in Germany. The cost benefit-analysis takes into account the benefit of increased security when cyclists wear a helmet or use a transport mode that is less risky than cycling. The analysis also considers the cost of purchasing helmets, reduced fitness when cycling is replaced by a motorized transport mode, the discomfort of wearing helmets and environmental externalities. The benefits of a helmet law are estimated at about 0.7 of the costs. A bicycle helmet law for Germany is found to be a waste of resources.     

Daily activity and travel sequences of students,faculty and staff at a large Canadian university

This paper examines the activity engagement, sequencing and timing of activities for student, faculty and staff commuter groups at the largest university in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. The daily activity patterns of all university community groups are modeled using the classification and regression tree classifier algorithm. The data used for this study are derived from the Environmentally Aware Travel Diary Survey (EnACT) conducted in spring 2016 at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia. Results show that there are significant differences in activity and travel behavior between university population segments and the general population in the region, and between campus groups. For example, students participate in more recreation activities compared to faculty and staff. They also take more trips to and from campus, and are more flexible in their scheduling of trips. The insights gained from this study will provide helpful information for promoting sustainability across university campuses, and for development of campus-based travel demand management strategies.     

A bi-level programming for bus lane network design

This paper proposes a bi-level programming model to solve the design problem for bus lane distribution in multi-modal transport networks. The upper level model aims at minimizing the average travel time of travelers, as well as minimizing the difference of passengers’ comfort among all the bus lines by optimizing bus frequencies. The lower level model is a multi-modal transport network equilibrium model for the joint modal split/traffic assignment problem. The column generation algorithm, the branch-and-bound algorithm and the method of successive averages are comprehensively applied in this paper for the solution of the bi-level model. A simple numerical test and an empirical test based on Dalian economic zone are employed to validate the proposed model. The results show that the bi-level model performs well with regard to the objective of reducing travel time costs for all travelers and balancing transit service level among all bus lines.