Sustainable mobility: Policy design and implementation in three Norwegian cities

The paper explores barriers for designing and implementing policies for the transition to more environmentally sustainable urban mobility, and strategies for overcoming these barriers in three Norwegian cities. Empirical data has been collected by interviewing key informants and analysing relevant documents. The findings show that there is broad political support for placing sustainable mobility high on the political agenda. Challenges appear when policy measures are designed and implemented. Cultural, legal, political, organisational, financial and knowledge-related barriers are identified. Many similar barriers are identified in the three case cities, but differences also appear. The results indicate that the size of the cities as well as the type of policy packages implemented are important factors, impacting both the type and strength of barriers. Several strategies for overcoming barriers have been implemented in the three case cities with success. The implementation of policy packages with a combination of “push” and “pull” measures is perhaps the most important strategy. In addition, using communication strategically and allowing for trials and step-by-step introduction of policy measures are success factors. Better methods for stakeholder involvement and planning tools for bicyclists and pedestrians may increase the acceptance of policy measures and speed up the transition toward sustainable mobility.     

On a pathway to de-carbonization – A comparison of new passenger car CO2 emission standards and taxation measures in the G20 countries

Considering the role of transport for a 1.5 Degree stabilization pathway and the importance of light-duty vehicle fuel efficiency within that, it is important to understand the key elements of a policy package to shape the energy efficiency of the vehicle fleet. This paper presents an analysis focusing on three types of policy measures: (1) CO₂ emission standards for new vehicles, (2) vehicle taxation directly and indirectly based on CO₂ emission levels, and (3) fuel taxation. The paper compares the policies in the G20 economies and estimates the financial impact of those policies using the example of a Ford Focus vehicle model. This analysis is a contribution to the assessment of the role of the transport sector in global decarbonisation efforts. The findings of this paper show that only an integrated approach of regulatory and fiscal policy measures can yield substantial efficiency gains in the vehicle fleet and can curb vehicle kilometres travelled by individual motorised transport. Using the illustrative example of one vehicle model, the case study analysis shows that isolated measures, e.g. fuel efficiency regulation without corresponding fuel and vehicle taxes only have minor CO₂ emission reduction effects and that policy measures need to be combined in order to achieve substantial emission reduction gains over time. The analysis shows that the highest level of impact is achieved by a combination regulatory and fiscal policies rather than only one policy even if this policy is more aggressive. When estimating the quantitative effect of fuel efficiency standards, vehicle and fuel tax, the analysis shows that substantial gains with regard to CO₂ emission are only achieved at a financial impact level above 500 Euros over a four year period.     

Things planners believe in,and things they deny

The paper examines the economic theory of consumer behavior from the Modern Psychoanalytic point of view with a metaphor of (transport) planning as a backdrop. It is claimed that the utility maximization principle of economic theory, no matter how broadly interpreted, does not envelop the motivation of human behavior and that the economic explanation of the aims of human behavior, which disregards the "dark side" of man, will result in narrowly conceived plans and policies.The application of economic theory, and other social sciences, to public policy has led to disjointedness of data collection, method of analysis, and planning and implementation. This, combined with a tautological behavioral theory, has made the current planning and public policy procedures self-verifying, and issues an invitation for a new theoretical approach which is comprehensive, does not ignore complexity and the large "error term", and appreciates the unity of data collection, method of investigation, and process of implementation.It is argued that unsatisfactory performance of the transport system, large errors inherent in data and models, the inability of extant transportation planning and policy to address key issues successfully, the environmental problem, and the value of the individual all call for new kinds of skills from the planners and policy makers.Freud's dualistic formulation of instinctual drives -- the life and death instincts -- is used as the new framework of explanation. This theory is seen to offer a convincing, more realistic and deeper understanding of the forces motivating human behavior, and one which is more in accordance with observable facts. If applied, the theory will lead to significantly different planning processes and to a profoundly different approach to public policy.     

Air transportation in a carbon constrained world: Long-term dynamics of policies and strategies for mitigating the carbon footprint of commercial aviation

With increasing demand for air transportation worldwide and decreasing marginal fuel efficiency improvements, the contribution of aviation to climate change relative to other sectors is projected to increase in the future. As a result, growing public and political pressures are likely to further target air transportation to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. The key challenges faced by policy makers and air transportation industry stakeholders is to reduce aviation greenhouse gas emissions while sustaining mobility for passengers and time-sensitive cargo as well as meeting future demand for air transportation in developing and emerging countries. This paper examines five generic policies for reducing the emissions of commercial aviation; (1) technological efficiency improvements, (2) operational efficiency improvements, (3) use of alternative fuels, (4) demand shift and (5) carbon pricing (i.e. market-based incentives). In order to evaluate the impacts of these policies on total emissions, air transport mobility, airfares and airline profitability, a system dynamics modeling approach was used. The Global Aviation Industry Dynamics (GAID) model captures the systemic interactions and the delayed feedbacks in the air transportation system and allows scenarios testing through simulations. For this analysis, a set of 34 scenarios with various levels of aggressiveness along the five generic policies were simulated and tested. It was found that no single policy can maintain emissions levels steady while increasing projected demand for air transportation. Simulation results suggest that a combination of the proposed policies does produce results that are close to a “weak” sustainability definition of increasing supply to meet new demand needs while maintaining constant or increasing slightly emissions levels. A combination of policies that includes aggressive levels of technological and operations efficiency improvements, use of biofuels along with moderate levels of carbon pricing and short-haul demand shifts efforts achieves a 140% increase in capacity in 2024 over 2004 while only increasing emissions by 20% over 2004. In addition, airline profitability is moderately impacted (10% reduction) compared to other scenarios where profitability is reduced by over 50% which pose a threat to necessary investments and the implementation of mitigating measures to reduce CO2 emissions. This study has shown that an approach based on a portfolio of mitigating measures and policies spanning across technology and operational improvements, use of biofuels, demand shift and carbon pricing is required to transition the air transportation industry close to an operating point of environmental and mobility sustainability.     

Assessment of policies and detection of unintended effects: Guiding principles for the consideration of methods and tools in policy-packaging

Single policies or entire policy packages are often assessed using different methods aiming at a quantification of effects as well as the detection of undesired outcomes. The knowledge of potential impacts is essential to take informed policy actions. Hence, there is a constant need for efficient assessment approaches to support policy decision-making. A broad range of such assessment methods is used in policymaking. Some of them are using quantitative data; others are characterized by qualitative information, observations or opinions. Practical experiences with transport policy prove that these methods all have their pros and cons, but none of them are able to detect the full range of effects. This leads to important questions this article deals with, such as what are the strengths and limitations of the different tools and methods for assessing impacts, and how should different approaches be integrated into the policymaking processes?We analyze the ability of assessment methods to detect different kinds of intended and unintended effects, and introduce the concepts of structurally open (mainly qualitative) and structurally closed (mainly quantitative) methods. It is argued that these concepts support making the pros and cons of the tools and methods more explicit and, thus, allow integrating the different tools and methods into the process of policy packaging. Based on a policy package example, we provide practical recommendations on how to integrate different assessment methods adequately and show that both quantitative and qualitative tools should be used in different phases of the process. The main recommendation is to alternate the application of assessment methods with structurally open methods used in the beginning and the end of the policymaking process and applying structurally closed methods in between.     

Transport policy scenario-building

Long-term planning decisions must be as robust as possible to withstand such changes in the policy-making environment. This calls for a new approach for identifying how policies might fare under different types of conditions and for identifying robust no-regrets strategies. This paper outlines a systematic and logical framework for the development of policy scenarios and shows how scenarios can be used in the analysis of future policy options. The article discusses how scenario analysis can be used to identify, anticipate and assess policy options for the future in an environment of uncertainty, mainly using examples of transport policy in Europe.     

Transport and society1

In 1963, the Buchanan Report in the UK advocated a combination of new road capacity, improved public transport and traffic restraint as a means to tackle congestion. Forty years on, and the advice from many transport experts remains the same. However, the scale and complexity of the problems associated with a mobility‐dependent society have grown. The need for politicians to make tough but realistic policy decisions on transport is now becoming unavoidable. They must confront the realities of living with the car as must the general public. Policymakers now also have social well‐being and sustainable development moving higher on their agendas alongside transport. Against such a backdrop, the paper makes the case for transport research, policy and practice to acknowledge more fully the inherent links between transport and society. It argues that greater recognition and understanding of such links is crucial to confronting the present realities. Transport does not merely serve society: it shapes society, as in turn society shapes transport. The future of each is dependent on the other, and this fact must be recognized. The paper advocates in turn that the transport profession must move from its heartlands in engineering and economics also to embrace more fully such disciplines as sociology and psychology. A factual picture of the many facets of present‐day society is presented and the implications for travel demand are discussed. Through considering phenomena such as social norms and habitual behaviour, it is then argued that the travel choices and behaviour of individuals are not simply a matter of economic optimization. This points to the need for decision‐makers to be furnished with better evidence about the transport problems faced and the potential efficacy of measures that might be taken. Discussion of public attitudes and the role of the media are included in the context of assessing how politicians can be encouraged and supported in their implementation of realistic but unpopular policies. Evidence and experience within the paper are UK based, although many of the issues and arguments apply world wide.     

A Stated preference freight mode choice model

Transport policy aims to assist the transport system to work more efficiently and effectively. An understanding of the reasons why people choose to move freight in a certain manner is critical to the development of appropriate policies. This article outlines a data collection approach and the development of a disaggregate mode choice model applicable to the analysis of freight shipper decision making. It focuses on the choice between rail and road in Java, Indonesia. The model indicates that safety, reliability and responsiveness are major attributes influencing rail/road freight mode choice. Transport policies aimed at improving these dimensions should increase the attractiveness of rail transport.     

Introducing environmental equity dimensions into the sustainable transport discourse: issues and pitfalls

Environmental equity considerations should be an essential ingredient of any sustainable transport strategy. Yet, it is unclear how environmental equity considerations can be incorporated into the sustainable transport discourse in a meaningful manner. The paper explores the multiple facets of the meaning of environmental equity in the case of transport. Then, the issues that need to be addressed in any analysis of each facet are delineated. On this basis it is suggested that the conventional environmental equity analysis, whereby the affected areas are compared to unaffected areas, is unlikely to render robust or meaningful results. Rather, the focus of research should be on the equity implications of policies geared to mitigate transport systems' environmental externalities, and on comparisons of users of the different transportation systems to those exposed to the negative environmental externalities of these systems. The results of such studies could provide direct inputs into comprehensive balanced policy packages within a sustainable transport strategy.     

The private and social cost efficiency of port hinterland container distribution through a regional logistics system

Increasingly, the debate on freight transport and logistics involves the challenge of sustainable development. Key objectives of sustainable or “green” freight logistics systems are the mitigation of negative environmental and human health effects of distribution operations and the realization of a major modal shift in transport preferences, while at the same time achieving internal generalized cost efficiency and quality of services. Pursuing these goals requires the introduction of a range of measures. These measures call for private and public actors to take up various initiatives and adopt policies. Usually, it is more effective to combine different actions into an integrated package of measures than to introduce single instruments in isolation.This article explores the nexus between sustainability and port hinterland container logistics. In particular, the methodology and results of an empirical analysis based on applications of a network programming tool called the “interport model” are presented and discussed. The model enables an examination of all possible effects on inland container flows and their associated internal and external costs due to public and private initiatives in the field of port hinterland container logistics. The empirical analysis aims to evaluate the impact of a set of simultaneous policy options and operational measures on the competitiveness and sustainability of hinterland multimodal distribution of import and export containers handled at the seaports of the Campania region located in Southern Italy. The loading units can transit through the dry port facilities (the so called “interports”) located in the same region and/or through extra regional railway terminals, before reaching their ultimate inland destinations or the seaports. The integrated package of measures simulated by means of the model includes: (i) infrastructure policy, (ii) improvements of rail services, (iii) regulatory changes in terms of customs authorizations and procedures, (iv) removal of technical and legal barriers to fair and non-discriminatory competition in the market of rail traction between regional seaports and interports, (v) new business models integrating container logistics operations between seaports and interports, and (vi) social marginal cost charging of transport operations. Once this package of instruments is introduced, higher private and social cost efficiency of port hinterland container distribution through the investigated regional logistics system can be achieved. For instance, it has been estimated an annual saving of the order of about 12,660 tonnes of CO₂ equivalent emissions from transport corresponding to an external cost reduction of 0.27 million euros from the observed real life situation, whereas the estimated saving in terms of air pollution (CO, NO_x, PM, SO₂, VOC) from transport is approximately 220 tonnes per year corresponding to an external benefit of 1.31 million euros.The most immediate priority appears to be the customs and intermodal logistics integration of seaports and interports by means of full implementation of the “extended gateway” concept as a way to increase the rail share of modal split and improve the overall cost efficiency of the system. In addition, the simultaneous introduction of a social marginal cost charging policy can contribute to make the regional interports a viable solution to expand the hinterland reach of the regional seaport cluster.     

A dynamic modeling approach to highway sustainability: Strategies to reduce overall impact

The need for sustainable development is increasing as the industrial and service activities keep putting such a strain on the natural functions of the Earth, thus the ability of the planet’s to sustain future generations. Since most of the industrial and service activities are provided via transportation, it is one of the most crucial elements of sustainable development. In this paper, US highway system sustainability problem is studied. System dynamics modeling approach is employed due to the causal relationships and feedback loops that are observed in the problem structure. The reference mode is considered as the increasing CO₂ emission trend. The objective is to meet the Liberman and Warner Climate Act’s targets by 2050. Three potential strategies for policy making are tested with the developed dynamic simulation: fuel efficiency, public transportation and electric vehicle usage. The results indicate that hybrid implementation of individual policies has a crucial impact on the success of policy making.     

New energy vehicle in China for sustainable development: Analysis of success factors and strategic implications

The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of the influential factors that affect the sustainable development of new energy vehicle in China, investigate the cause-effect relationships among them, and propose some appropriate policies and efficacious measures for the policy-makers to promote its sustainable development. Interpretative Structuring Modeling was used to identify the critical factors affecting the sustainability of China’s new energy vehicle industry and to find the potential relationships among the factors; subsequently, fuzzy Decision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory was employed to investigate the cause-effect relationships among the influential factors and to prioritize these factors. The results reveal that technological maturity, technological standards for new energy vehicles, and funds on R&D of new energy vehicles are the three most important driving factors for promoting the sustainable development of new energy vehicle industry of China. Some implications were also proposed for China’s authority. The success factors and strategic implications of new energy vehicles in China were investigated in a multi-criteria analysis approach.     

Institutional constraints on transport policymaking: the case of company cars in Israel

Transportation analysis emphasizes the necessity to internalize the transport externalities of car usage through taxation. Yet taxation decisions are often made with non-transport goals in mind. In such cases, transport policies are made ‘by the way.’ This paper examines such a case: Israel’s taxation policy on company cars. It shows that current taxation policies result in increasing numbers of company cars and growing numbers of transport users who are not sensitive to the marginal cost of car use and make excessive use of the car. As a result, a significant portion of Travel Demand Management (TDM) measures cannot affect this group. The Israeli case of company car tax reform demonstrates the problematic effect of a policy that does not take its overall consequences on other policy fields into account and thereby impairs efforts to reduce the negative impacts of the transport system. Also, it demonstrates the importance of institutional aspects of transport policymaking.

Empirical distributions of vehicle use and fuel efficiency across space: Implications of asymmetry for measuring policy incidence

Concerns about local air pollution and climate change have prompted all levels of government to consider a variety of policies to reduce vehicle dependence and fuel consumption, as the transportation sector is one of the largest sources of local and global emissions. Because many of the policy options under consideration are market-based (e.g., gasoline tax, carbon tax), it is important to consider how the impacts would vary across space and affect different subpopulations. Evaluating incidence is relevant for both the expected costs and benefits of a particular policy, however detailed data on vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) and fuel consumption allowing for the distributions of these variables to be estimated at a fine geographic scale is rarely available. This paper uses a unique dataset with more than 20 million vehicles in California to derive estimates of VMT and fuel consumption in order to examine the spatial distribution of impacts for an increase in the price of gasoline as well as the consequences of using different statistics for policy evaluation. Results show that VMT and fuel consumption distributions are not symmetrically distributed and vary significantly within transportation planning regions. To understand the potential implications of this asymmetry, we do a back of the envelope comparison using the mean and mode of the VMT or fuel consumption distribution for policy analysis. We find that assuming a symmetric distribution can lead to a divergence of 20–40% from the estimates based on the empirical distribution. Our results, therefore, introduce caution in interpreting the incidence of policies targeting the transportation sector based on averages.     

The symbolism of ‘eco cars’ across national cultures: Potential implications for policy formulation and transfer

Transport choices are not merely practical decisions but steeped in cultural and societal perceptions. Understanding these latent drivers of behaviour will allow countries to develop and import policies to more successfully promote sustainable transport. Transport symbolism – what people believe their ownership or use of a mode connotes to others about their societal position – has been shown to be one such, non-trivial, hidden motivator. In the case of hybrid and electric cars (‘eco cars’), studies have demonstrated how their symbolic value varies within a society among different social groups. As yet, however, there has been scant research into comparing how the symbolism of a mode varies across national cultures, horizontally, between individuals with similar socio-demographic characteristics. Through qualitative thematic analysis, this study utilises two of Hofstede’s cross-cultural indices – power differential and individualism versus collectivism – to develop and strengthen theory on how the differing symbolism of eco cars currently varies between four cultural clusters – Anglo, Nordic, Confucian and South Asian. It also deliberates how observed symbolic qualitative differences may influence an individual or group choice to procure eco cars. Finally, it discusses how policy development, transfer and marketing, within the context of eco cars, may need to be modified by national governments, in the Confucian and South Asian cultures, so as to encourage uptake and modal shift.     

The rationality of transport investment packages

Investment packages, involving several modes, emerge as a widely used element in urban transport policies. Package policies entail some specific possibilities and traps in the planning and decision-making processes. To assess these properties, the concepts of instrumental and communicative rationality are applied. These rationality concepts serve to structure the pro and con arguments concerning four crucial considerations in package planning: The use of formal impact assessment methods, the overall size and changeability of the investment packages, the share of road vs green modes investments, and the sequence of implementation. These issues are investigated by drawing on experience from transport investment packages in six Norwegian cities.     

Road-pricing attempts in the United States

This paper focuses on the attempts which have been made to introduce road pricing in the United States. It considers the reasons why such attempts have failed to progress beyond the discussion stage, looking in particular at the political and institutional problems of implementation. The practicality of fiscal restraint policies tied to parking charges is considered as an alternative. Finally, consideration is given to ways of circumventing some of the major problems standing in the way of implementing fiscal traffic-restraint policies and the role the federal administration can play in policy formulation.     

Urban transportation and decision making — A comparison of three case studies in Britain

In spite of the impacts that new transportation facilities have upon the economic, social and political structures of established urban areas, the decision process leading to policy formation and plan implementation has received little, if any, attention. Case studies of three County Boroughs in Britain having different urban transport policies suggest that the decision making process is dominated by groups and individuals who attempt to implement policies which benefit the sectional interests which they represent. Within a changing relevant environment, local technicians, politicians and community groups compete and form coalitions in order to acquire authority and implement their own notions of justice and equity in the adaptation of the built environment.     

Integrating transport and land-use planning? How steering cultures in local authorities affect implementation of integrated public transport and land-use planning

Previous research has shown integrated planning to be important for achieving aims concerning more environmentally friendly transport operations, but less good at explaining prerequisites of implementation. This paper analyses how management and working practises in local authorities, here understood as steering cultures, affect implementation of integrated land-use and public transport planning approaches. The analysis builds on case studies of planning in two Swedish municipalities. These have developed two antithetical steering cultures, namely one that can be described as deliberative and one that can be described as sectorised. The paper describes the advantages and disadvantages of these steering cultures. The findings show the deliberative model to facilitate integration through advanced mechanisms of consensus and co-ordination between policy-makers and officials. The sectorised model has no such mechanisms, but this need not result in poor prospects of integrated planning. It is important for integrated planning approaches, whatever the steering culture, to be in line with the institutionalised norms and objectives by which planning practices are governed. Integration therefore needs a normative component, so as to ensure implementation. The important normative component in this context can be construed as discourses and rationales concerning transport and the urban development of which public transport forms part.     

Traffic restraint: A review of the alternatives

This paper draws upon a wide range of international experiences to assess the role that road pricing may play as a means of urban traffic restraint. It considers why restraint policies have not been more widely adopted in the face of mounting urban transport problems and identifies the major difficulties in implementation. A number of restraint policies are available and these are compared, using a range of criteria, as potential tools of transport policy. The conclusion which emerges is that, although the general case for restraint is more complex than many simplistic analyses have suggested, where there is a case for its introduction, road pricing, in a fairly simple form, offers the most effective approach. Finally, consideration is given to the future research needs into restraint measures.