Expansion in cargo handling: geographical and functional issues

Intense co-operation as well as severe competition are two characteristics of the current sea-port cargo-handling sector. This paper contributes to remedying the lack of understanding of the effects that such strategies may have on operating conditions in the sector. It analyses the geographical strategies pursued by the major operators up to 2006, as well as the functional directions in which co-operation is sought. It appears that most domestic ventures for the majority of container-handling operators are non-co-operative ones, except for PSA and HPH. Abroad, all of the cargo-handling operators except DPA/CSXWT have more co-operative than non-co-operative ventures. As to nationality of acquired subsidiaries, it is observed that most co-operative ventures have two nationalities involved. In terms of functional direction of operations, the major container-handling companies, except APM Terminals, start up most of their co-operative ventures with non-cargo-handling partners. Furthermore, it can be observed that HPH, APM Terminals, P&O Ports and DPA/CSXWT have started up, acquired or merged with more limited companies in cargo-handling than in non-cargo-handling activities. Most of the non-horizontal partners in cargo-handling ventures appear to be industrial or investment companies. PSA's, Eurogate's and DPA's non-cargo-handling ventures predominantly are in logistics. Combining geography and functional direction graphically shows that the major operators have had very diverging strategies. The two extremes are Eurogate, with a network which is solely focused on Europe, and P&O Ports, covering all continents.     

Port co-opetition in concept and practice

The port industry has undergone a rationalization process over the last decade. An increasing proportion of port management and operations is being taken over by global port operating groups. Many port operators who previously ran only their local business now extend their business scope to the regional or global scale; today's port operators can be regarded as multinational corporations. In the era of global economy, a port no longer enjoys a natural monopoly, as was the case in the past. To cope with this changing business environment, a certain form of competition and co-operation among ports is necessary so as to provide services that fit into shipping lines' strategies. It is suggested that ports have to concentrate on new ways for co-operation in an effort to establish a countervailing power. This paper proposes a new strategic option known as co-opetition, the combination of competition and co-operation, for the port industry, and explains a case of co-opetition between the container ports in Hong Kong and South China. The results of this research will provide a useful insight into the port industry, which is currently required to carry out its business in an ever-changing business environment.     

上海组合港集装箱码头的竞争与协调

<正>1997年9月29日,横跨上海、浙江、江苏三省市的港口集装箱码头的行政管理机构——上海组合港管理委员会在上海宣告成立。 上海组合港以上海为中心,江苏和浙江为两翼,具体范围包括:上海吴淞口以下,江苏省南京长江大桥以下的长江水域以及浙江省宁波、舟山地区水域已建成和规划建设的集装箱泊位的深水岸线。但不包括黄浦江内港区。上海组合港现有20个集装箱泊位,通过能力为320万TEU,今后将保持一定的上升趋势。     

Engaging the paratransit sector in Cape Town on public transport reform: Progress,process and risks

The South African government in 2006 initiated an urban public transport reform programme reliant on the introduction of new bus rapid transit (BRT) systems. Affected paratransit operators can opt to be incorporated in these systems by forming new operating companies, but must withdraw their existing services from proposed routes. Cape Town's first phase of BRT operations came online in 2011, and operator engagement has focussed on this phase. The attitudes within this city's paratransit sector in relation to future phases, and to the broader reform policy, remain largely untested. In view of this sector's past resistance to government-led proposals, and the current phase avoiding areas with the highest concentrations of operators, the current engagement process's outcomes may not be adequate indicators of future prospects.     

Port co-opetition in concept and practice

The port industry has undergone a rationalization process over the last decade. An increasing proportion of port management and operations is being taken over by global port operating groups. Many port operators who previously ran only their local business now extend their business scope to the regional or global scale; today's port operators can be regarded as multinational corporations. In the era of global economy, a port no longer enjoys a natural monopoly, as was the case in the past. To cope with this changing business environment, a certain form of competition and co-operation among ports is necessary so as to provide services that fit into shipping lines' strategies. It is suggested that ports have to concentrate on new ways for co-operation in an effort to establish a countervailing power. This paper proposes a new strategic option known as co-opetition , the combination of competition and co-operation, for the port industry, and explains a case of co-opetition between the container ports in Hong Kong and South China. The results of this research will provide a useful insight into the port industry, which is currently required to carry out its business in an ever-changing business environment.     

Liner alliances in the globalization era: a strategic tool for Asian container carriers

There has been an increased interest recently in alliances as successors of the large consortia that used to operate in the context of the conference system. Today, having become a common means and term of co-operation in a variety of other industries, alliances are posited as the response of the supply side of liner shipping to important changes on the demand side; alliances have, thus, become predominant in the most important routes for container cargoes. In recent years, however, the list of major container traffic generators and the list of major carriers of containerized cargoes have begun to contain more common entries, generally originating from the Asian region. Asia is, however, a large continent and the entrance of Asian carriers into liner shipping has not been simultaneous; the position, strategies and co-operation strategies of Asian companies have more differences than they share common features. Nevertheless, this paper suggests that alliances are a distinct form of co-operation in liner shipping and the empirical evidence based on a survey in the region supports this hypothesis. The similarity of attitudes of the major Asian container carriers vis a vis alliances is in this way revealing in terms of the range of motivations for participating in the alliance system in a globalized transport environment.     

港口的区域垄断和竞争:圆周模型

港口具有一定的地理垄断性,同时港口竞争也日益加剧,交叉腹地日益扩大。区域垄断和竞争成为港口共同的发展特征,协调两者之间的关系对于港口产业发展具有重要意义。圆周模型对于分析港口产业经济特性非常恰当。通过运用圆周模型来理解港口的区域垄断和竞争特性,可以为实现港口产业规模型竞争的公共政策制定提供基础性的理论依据。具体的政策建议包括港口业务的垂直分解及构建地主港模式、加快港口民营化进程、在放松规制的同时重建规制及推动形成区域内邻近港口间的协同竞争关系。     

Korean liner shipping in the era of global alliances

In the course of the last two decades Korean shipping has emerged as a major player in the liner market. In 1970 there was not a single container ship in the Korean fleet; yet, within the next two decades, shipping companies from Korea have become included among the top 10 liner operators in the world, in the context of a spectacular ascent of Asian companies in international container shipping. During the same period the organization of liner shipping itself underwent major changes. In the 1970s and 1980s, pools and powerful consortia prevailed, maximizing frequency and optimizing fleet deployment under pressure from the high investment entailed by containerization. The era of consortia, however, came to a close in the early 1990s; intermodalism and the expansion of the major liner companies into forward and backward segments of the transport chain rendered them inflexible for pursuing individual strategies of product diversification with a view to larger market shares. Global alliances were finally born as a result of a major reshuffling of co-operation agreements and of the globalization of the production process on the demand side. The aim of this paper is to follow and assess the options available to an aggressive low-cost national fleet in its journey to competitive maturity through a period of changing organization of liner shipping, focusing on the course of the leading Korean container company, and one of the largest in the world today, Hanjin. It highlights at the same time both the deep structural changes which liner shipping has undergone in the last two decades and the effects of current changes, such as the recent wave of mergers in this sector.     

Flagging options for the future: A turning point in Korean shipping policy?

The issues surrounding the future of Korea's shipping policy have been heavily debated since 1990 because the Korean shipping industry has been facing rising crew costs and difficulties in recruitment of qualified crew, an adverse taxation system, very limited access to foreign capital markets, and an inflexible government regulatory environment. Consequently, this has contributed to the deterioration of Korea's compectitive edge. This paper aims to provide both an account of the current adverse situtation in Korean shipping business and proposals to alleviate the plight of shipping enterprises. Within the context of that adversity, two solutions are suggested to improve the current situation, by either establishing a Korean second register or flagging out. The paper explores the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. Because ship management is closely interrelated to flagging strategies, the paper also discusses areas of co-operation between Korean shipping or ship management companies and advanced foreign ship management companies.     

Network economies in liner shipping: the role of home markets

This paper deals with the measurement of the network complexity of some selected shipping groups, also identifying the contribution of co-operative agreements among carriers. The empirical investigation is focused on: (i) the analysis of the distribution of the carrying capacity per range; and (ii) the comparison of that capacity with the throughput handled in the port facilities of the group. These variables are interpreted in the light of the impact that alliances have on the geographical wideness of the services supplied by each partner. This factor also allows to depict how the cultural and political origin of shipping lines affects the decision of joining an alliance and the outcomes deriving from such co-operation.     

Network economies in liner shipping: the role of home markets

This paper deals with the measurement of the network complexity of some selected shipping groups, also identifying the contribution of co-operative agreements among carriers. The empirical investigation is focused on: (i) the analysis of the distribution of the carrying capacity per range; and (ii) the comparison of that capacity with the throughput handled in the port facilities of the group. These variables are interpreted in the light of the impact that alliances have on the geographical wideness of the services supplied by each partner. This factor also allows to depict how the cultural and political origin of shipping lines affects the decision of joining an alliance and the outcomes deriving from such co-operation.     

Present pilotage practices in Finland

Pilotage has been studied very little internationally and also in Finland. However, accidents in which pilots have been involved have been investigated thoroughly. Studies show that the traditional individual-centred pilotage with non-written passage plans no longer serves the needs of today's traffic and vessels that have increased in size. Pilotage should be based on the so-called good pilotage practices, i.e. pre-prepared, yet adaptable passage plans, more efficient bridge co-operation and modern navigation instruments. Yet, these are not an integral part of the prevailing pilotage practices in Finland. Pilotage should be developed so that the safety management systems of the vessels support the co-operation on the bridge, but on the other hand, so that the advantages of today's pilotage practices are maintained.     

British OSV companies in the North Sea, 1964-1997

In the mid 1960s the world OSV industry was dominated by American operators, but with the rise of the North Sea offshore industry, British entrepreneurs were given the chance to contest American dominance. By the mid 1970s British OSV companies had made great progress and, at least in the North Sea context, their principal rivals were now the Norwegians rather than the Americans. British OSV companies continued to prosper until the world oil price collapse of 1986. This blow led to a restructuring of the British OSV industry, which led, by the mid-1990s, to Stirling Shipping being the principal British OSV firm in the North Sea and OIL being the largest non-American OSV company in the world. The 1997 sale of OIL to the Americans was a blow to the British OSV sector, but British enterprise in this field still continues in the North Sea.     

Technical,allocative and cost efficiencies of Chinese ports

This paper reports on empirical studies of the technical, allocative, and cost efficiencies (CEs) of Chinese ports based on the panel data of 16 listed port corporations from 1998 to 2011 by means of Bayesian Inference and Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods. An error terms approach is used to resolve the Greene Problem in the estimation of allocative efficiency. The results show that the technical efficiencies have tended to decline in most ports. Inputs to R&D and improving management level are insufficient to offset this decline. Seaports have higher CEs than river ports. Ports with higher container cargo proportion have higher CEs. Ports with more than 50% of shares owned by the State have higher CEs.     

The competitiveness of short sea shipping in multimodal logistics supply chains: service attributes

In Europe, ports are confronted with a closer integration in the maritime and shipping industries. The co-operation agreements can take several forms such as alliances and mergers among shipping lines, conferences, involvement of shipping companies in terminal management, and extending interests in inland transport of shipping companies. In this paper we give a brief overview of these different types of agreement and we examine the consequences of this evolution of the market structures in which ports and shipping companies have to operate. More specifically, attention goes to the competitive position of the port in this new environment. It is clear that the role of the port and the port authorities has to be redefined to guarantee that it remains a fully fledged player in this fast evolving integrated market.     

Do mergers and alliances influence European shipping and port competition?

In Europe, ports are confronted with a closer integration in the maritime and shipping industries. The co-operation agreements can take several forms such as alliances and mergers among shipping lines, conferences, involvement of shipping companies in terminal management, and extending interests in inland transport of shipping companies. In this paper we give a brief overview of these different types of agreement and we examine the consequences of this evolution of the market structures in which ports and shipping companies have to operate. More specifically, attention goes to the competitive position of the port in this new environment. It is clear that the role of the port and the port authorities has to be redefined to guarantee that it remains a fully fledged player in this fast evolving integrated market.     

论港口与城市产业结构一体化发展

<正>当今世界经济贸易趋于全球化,国际间资本流动加快、数量增加,全球性公司大量兴起。在世界经济上述发展趋势形成中,港口和港口城市起着越来越重要的作用。因此,研究港口与城市产业结构一体化发展的理论与实践是十分必要的。 一、港口城市产业结构发展战略的选择 城市产业结构的发展方向是由城市内外多种因素影响确定的,既有在提高劳动生产率和经济效益前提下,对城市现有产业结构的合理调整,也有着眼未来,顺应世界经济技术发展趋势的新选择。只有经过全面的考虑和综合的分析研究,才能制定出可行的城市产业结构发展战略。 对港口城市来说,一定要把港口作为一个特定的区域加以利用,并在政策上给予扶植,使之能成为带动港口城市产业结构发展的“发展极”。发展极的概念是由法国经济学家朗索瓦·佩尔鲁克斯提出的。他认为,经济增长不是在整个城市以同样速度增加的,而是在一定的地区、一定的部门快速发展,带动了整体的发展。这些地区、部门就成了带动经济发展的“发展极”。港口城市的发展极应选择在港口及港口区域。因为港口及港口区域具备了成为“发展极”的最有利条件。     

论上海建设国际集装箱枢纽港的必要性

<正>一、上海港目前在国际集装箱运输网络中的地位 上海港自从70年代参与国际集装箱运输以来,其集装箱吞吐量每年连续增长,尤其是近几年来更以25％以上的速度增长。1993年上海港完成集装箱吞吐量93.5万TEU,比1992年增长了27.95％。1994年完成119.9万TEU,比上年增长28.3％,居全国之首。但在世界范围内上海港集装箱吞吐量1994年居21位,在亚洲地区仅占第10位(详见表1)。在上海港1993年93.5万TEU中,国内运输量仅占8.4％,即中转箱在总吞吐量中还不到10％,说明上海港目前还未达到国内集装箱中转港的地位。而在上海港外贸集装箱吞吐量85.6万TEU中,很大部分(约占62.4％)须经海外(香港、日本、韩国)港口中转,每年造成的中转费和二程运费的收入损失数亿美元。而周围地区的高雄、釜山和神户港发展势头迅猛,1994年已分居世界第3、5、6位。高雄港1994年的集装箱吞吐量达到490万TEU,中转率40％以上,距国际性集装箱枢纽港标准仅一步之遥。上述事实说明,上海港目前充其量属于第二类港口,甚至处于第二类与第三类之间,离国际性集装箱枢纽港的标准还相差甚远。 上海港未能形成国际性枢纽港的原因除在软件方面有起步晚、管理不协调的因素以外,在硬件方面主要有以下两方面问题:     

Risk perception affecting the performance of shipping companies: the moderating effect of China and Korea

Risks in the shipping industry have been highlighted and have attracted significant attention, especially following the bankruptcy of Hanjin in 2017. Due to the decrease in container volume, the business environment for large shipping companies in China has deteriorated. Therefore, major large shipping companies have implemented mixed ownership reform, which provides more opportunities for large Korean shipping companies to enter the Chinese shipping industry. This study first identifies risk perception, specifically focusing on the moderating effect of Chinese and Korean shipping companies, and then demonstrates the impact of these risks on shipping company performance. The results show that market, operational, and technical risks have a negative influence on Chinese shipping companies, whereas market, policy, financial, operations, and technical risks have a negative influence on Korean shipping companies. This study contributes to the fundamental understanding of the effect of risk perception on performance among shipping companies in both countries and calls for further research on risk management plans based on the risk factors identified herein. On a practical level, this study provides an important reference for operators and investors who seek to enter strategic alliances or joint venture in Chinese shipping industry.     

Hybrid urban transport systems in developing countries: Portents and prospects

Some South African cities have initiated public transport transformation projects which, in most cases, ultimately envisage the in toto replacement of paratransit operations with formalised BRT systems. There are two likely outcomes: (1) complex negotiations with existing operators and budget constraints will result in the in toto transformation occurring over an extended period of time; or (2) in toto transformation will simply not occur. In either case, cities will depend, for decades, on a ‘hybrid’ public transport system that combines both formal and paratransit operators. This paper presents a case for policy recognition of hybrid systems, and explores how such systems might best be managed. The following categories of hybrid public transport systems are explored through case studies: (1) transformative processes in which paratransit operators are to form or assimilate into companies to operate new services, but this incorporation has proved difficult to complete and the operational and regulatory frameworks remain unchanged; and (2) transformative processes that, from the outset, anticipated a hybrid system and designed the outcome accordingly. A third category of hybrid transport systems, defined as transformative processes that have been amended following a realisation that in toto transformation is unattainable, is also introduced and discussed. The paper concludes by tentatively drawing lessons for appropriate public transport regulation, particularly with respect to Cape Town's transformation project. It is argued that a review of the current national regulatory framework is required to enable possible project modifications that acknowledge system hybridity. It is suggested that regulatory frameworks that accommodate the likely hybrid nature of public transport system outcomes have greater prospects of success than frameworks that do not. Furthermore, it is argued that contextually appropriate and successful public transport transformation projects do not necessarily require the in toto substitution of incumbent paratransit operators, and that they can be integrated with, and complement, formal services.