New car preferences move away from greater size,weight and power: Impact of Dutch consumer choices on average CO2-emissions

This paper assesses the separate effects of consumer preferences and technological advances on sales-weighted average CO₂ emissions of new passenger cars in the Netherlands. Since 2008, consumer preferences have been moving away from large size, weight and power whereby car buyers were offsetting more than 50% of the potential CO₂ reduction from technological advances. From 2008 to 2011 consumer choices not only ceased to offset a large share of the technological advances, but contributed more than an additional 30% to CO₂ reductions. Had consumer preferences not decoupled from the historical upward trend, the Dutch sales-weighted average CO₂ emissions of new passenger cars would have been 139 g/km rather than the 126 grams CO₂ per km in 2011.     

What is the market potential of plug-in electric vehicles as commercial passenger cars? A case study from Germany

Commercial passenger cars are a possible early market segment for plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). Compared to privately owned vehicles, the commercial vehicle segment is characterized by higher mileage and a higher share of vehicle sales in Germany. To this point, there are only few studies which analyze the commercial passenger car sector and arrive at contradictory results due to insufficient driving profile data with an observation period of only one day. Here, we calculate the market potential of PEVs for the German commercial passenger car sector by determining the technical and economical potential for PEVs in 2020 from multi-day driving profiles. We find that commercial vehicles are better suited for PEVs than private ones since they show higher average annual mileage and drive more regularly. About 87% of the analyzed three-week vehicle profiles can technically be fulfilled by battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with an electric driving range of about 110 km while plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with an electric range of 40 km could obtain an electric driving share of 60% on average. In moderate energy price scenarios, PEVs can reach a market share of 2–4% in the German commercial passenger car sales by 2020 and especially the large commercial branches (Trade, Manufacturing, Administrative services and Other services) are important. However, our analysis shows a high sensitivity of results to energy and battery prices as well as electric consumptions.     

Carbon emission from urban passenger transportation in Beijing

Urban passenger transport significantly contributes to global greenhouse gas emissions, especially in developing countries owing to the rapid motorization, thus making it an important target for carbon reduction. This article established a method to estimate and analyze carbon emission from urban passenger transport including cars, rail transit, taxis and buses. The scope of research was defined based on car registration area, transport types and modes, the stages of rail transit energy consumption. The data availability and gathering were fully illustrated. A city level emission model for the aforementioned four modes of passenger transport was formulated, and parameters including emission factor of electricity and fuel efficiency were tailored according to local situations such as energy structure and field survey. The results reveal that the emission from Beijing’s urban passenger transport in 2012 stood at 15 million tonnes of CO₂, of which 75.5% was from cars, whereas car trip sharing constitutes only 42.5% of the total residential trips. Bus travel, yielding 28.6 g CO₂, is the most efficient mode of transport under the current situations in terms of per passenger kilometer (PKM) emission, whereas car or taxi trips emit more than 5 times that of bus trips. Although a decrease trend appears, Beijing still has potential for further carbon reduction in passenger transport field in contrast to other cities in developed countries. Development of rail transit and further limitation on cars could assist in reducing 4.39 million tonnes CO₂ emission.     

Are multi-car households better suited for battery electric vehicles? – Driving patterns and economics in Sweden and Germany

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) could reduce CO₂ emissions from the transport sector but their limited electric driving range diminishes their utility to users. The effect of the limited driving range can be reduced in multi-car households where users could choose between a BEV and a conventional car for long-distance travel. However, to what extent the driving patterns of different cars in a multi-car household’s suit the characteristics of a BEV needs further analysis. In this paper we analyse the probability of daily driving above a fixed threshold for conventional cars in current Swedish and German car driving data. We find second cars in multi-car households to require less adaptation and to be better suited for BEV adoption compared to first cars in multi-car households as well as to cars in single-car households. Specifically, the share of second cars that could fulfil all their driving is 20 percentage points higher compared to first cars and cars from single-car households. This result is stable against variation of driving range and of the tolerated number of days requiring adaptation. Furthermore, the range needed to cover all driving needs for about 70% of the vehicles is only 220 km for second cars compared to 390 km for the average car. We can further confirm that second cars have higher market viability from a total cost of ownership perspective. Here, the second cars achieve a 10 percentage points higher market share compared to first cars, and to cars in single-car households for Swedish economic conditions, while for Germany the corresponding figure is 2 percentage points. Our results are important for understanding the market viability of current and near-future BEVs.     

Control of vehicle ownership and market competition: theory and Singapore’s experience with the vehicle quota system

This paper studies the impact of vehicle quota system on the market structure of Singapore’s car distributorship industry. Using recently available data, we analyzed the populations and new registrations of different brands of passenger car and motorcycle. We found an increase in market concentration in the car distributorship industry, as the market shares of the top distributors have increased steadily, even though the annual growth rate of vehicle population is capped at 3% per annum. We also found that average dealership markups for passenger cars for the period August–September 2002 are similar to those reported in earlier studies. We relate these empirical findings to a theoretical model of a differentiated-good oligopoly operating under an industry sales constraint.     

Estimation of nitrogen oxides emissions from petrol and diesel passenger cars by means of on-board monitoring: Effect of vehicle speed,vehicle technology,engine type on emission rates

NO_X emission rates of 13 petrol and 3 diesel passenger cars as a function of average speed from 10 to 120 km/h, emission class (pre-Euro 1 – Euro 5), engine type were investigated by on-board monitoring on roads and highways of St. Petersburg using a portative Testo XXL 300 gas analyzer. The highest level of NO_X emission 0.5–2.5 g/km was inherent to old pre-Euro 1 petrol cars without a catalytic converter. NO_X emissions rates of Euro 1 and Euro 2 petrol cars changed within 0.15–0.9 g/km, Euro 3 – 0.015–0.27 g/km, Euro 4 – 0.013–0.1 g/km, Euro 5 – 0.002–0.043 g/km. Euro 3 – Euro 4 petrol cars generally satisfied corresponding NO_X Emission Standards (ES), except cold-start period, Euro 5 petrol cars did not exceed ES. Warmed, stabilized engines of Euro 3 – Euro 5 petrol cars showed 5–10 times lower NO_X emission rates than corresponding ES in the range of speed from 20 to 90 km/h. NO_X emission rates of diesel Euro 3 and Euro 4 cars varied from 0.45 to 1.1 g/km and from 0.31 to 1.1 g/km, respectively. Two examined diesel Euro 3 and one Euro 4 passenger vehicles did not satisfy NO_X ES at real use. Euro 3 diesel cars showed 28.9 times higher NO_X emissions than Euro 3 petrol cars and Euro 4 diesel car demonstrated 17.6 times higher NO_X emissions than Euro 4 petrol cars at warmed and stabilized engine at a cruise speed ranging from 30 to 60 km/h.     

An environmental comparison of repair versus replacement in vehicle maintenance

In consequence of traffic accidents car maintenance is essential. There are two maintenance options: to either repair the damaged components or replace them. Economic and environmental considerations come into making the optimal choice. This article develops a comparative environmental assessment of the options for typical non-structural damage to passenger cars using life cycle assessment. The results show that the environmental impact is generally lower when a damaged car component is repaired than when a new one is fitted. Single process steps have a significant influence on the results, and selective improvements may have an effect on the respective impacts.     

Six years of CO2-based tax incentives for new passenger cars in The Netherlands: Impacts on purchasing behavior trends and CO2 effectiveness

There is growing evidence that consumers respond more effectively to upfront price signals, such as vehicle purchase taxes and feebate policies, and to tax incentives that are more salient than others, such as company car taxes graded by CO₂ emissions. This paper examines tax changes in The Netherlands, which are among the most stringent and most salient in Europe, and assesses the ex-post purchasing impacts and CO₂ effectiveness of six years of CO₂-based tax incentives for low-carbon cars in The Netherlands. Dutch tax incentives resulted in 13 g/km, or 11% lower average CO₂ emissions in 2013. The Netherlands has moved from the 12th position before the tax changes in 2007 to become Europe’s number one in terms of the lowest average new car CO₂ emissions and highest share of electric vehicles in 2013. Tax incentives for new cars sold between 2008 and 2013 have resulted in 4.6 million tons of potential lifetime CO₂ abatement at the cost of a drop in tax revenues of 30–50%. However, when corrected for the Dutch policy-induced increasing real-world fuel-economy shortfall and leakage of carbon reduction potential through vehicle export of low-carbon cars, only 3.5 million tons or 75% of the CO₂ reduction remains. CO₂-based tax incentives for company cars seem to have contributed the most to the observed turnaround in purchasing behavior towards lower CO₂-emitting passenger cars.     

Improvement in the estimation and back-extrapolation of CO2 emissions from the Irish road transport sector using a bottom-up data modelling approach

Road transport is a major source of CO₂ emissions in Ireland and accounts for almost 96% of the total CO₂ emissions from the transport sector. Following the recent adopted UNFCCC reporting guidelines on annual inventories [24/CP.19], this study applied the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (2006 IPCC GLs) tier 3 approach to estimate CO₂ emissions from road transport at the vehicle category level, for the first time in Ireland. For this, disaggregated datasets were prepared based on year of vehicle registration and mileage since registration of the vehicle. Such an approach provided a more realistic national scenario in comparison to the use of average mileage degradation in emission calculations. This investigation comprised a recalculation of previous emissions estimates (1990–2012) and an estimation of CO₂ emissions in 2013 using a previously unavailable level of data disaggregation for vehicle mileage as well as using vehicle class specific data and an improved bottom-up estimation methodology in COPERT. Historic vehicle fleet data were restructured, annual mileage data were estimated in relation to the fleet data and back extrapolated using a regression approach.The results showed that the mileage degradation was not only subject to fuel technology, engine size, and age but also the emissions class and vehicle category. It was also observed that the disaggregated level of data provided a different CO₂ emissions split among the vehicle categories than that of previous estimations which were based on an aggregated level of data. Previous emissions inventories (1990–2012) were shown to have underestimated the share from diesel fuelled passenger cars by more than 56% in 2012. Diesel fuelled passenger cars were also found to account for the majority of CO₂ emissions from road transport activities in Ireland in 2013. The level and trend assessment showed that emissions from Euro-II and Euro-III classed vehicles especially for passenger cars, which have a significant contribution to the total emission in 2013 have caused an increase in fleet level emissions in Ireland. In addition, the results also showed that the emissions share from Light Duty Vehicles and Heavy Duty Vehicles were overestimated by previous investigations. This paper highlights the importance of the resolution of data used in emissions inventory preparation which may impact upon future projections and policy formulation. The findings of this investigation are also discussed in relation their implications for road transport policy, including carbon taxation and future policy options aimed at achieving EU emissions target in 2020.     

Environmental impact of scrapping old cars

Many countries introduced scrapping programs in the 90s, partly legitimated by environmental impact reductions. However, reducing the age of the current car fleet may result in an increase of life-cycle CO₂ emissions. This will probably also be true for cars to be produced in future unless fuel efficiency of new cars improves much faster than the historical trend indicates. Reducing the age of petrol-fuelled cars without a catalytic converter will reduce both life-cycle NO_x and VOC emissions but is less cost-effective than fitting catalytic converters on these cars. In any case, the influence of a car’s lifetime on life-cycle NO_x and VOC emissions will be reduced in the near future.     

Demand forecasting of diesel passenger car considering consumer preference and government regulation in South Korea

Changing market regulations in South Korea have allowed diesel-fueled passenger cars in the domestic market. The diffusion of diesel cars is tied to issues of environmental impact, energy supply and demand, and changes in tax revenue. Policymakers can influence demand for diesel vehicles to protect social welfare and to observe international environmental protection laws. On the supply side, carmakers need to know consumer preferences regarding new vehicles to arrive at development strategies.This study uses microsimulated demand forecasting to address these issues and predict consumer demand for diesel passenger cars. The model accommodates governmental policies and car attributes such as price and engine efficiency. We find that consumers will likely prefer diesel passenger cars to gasoline ones due to the low operation costs of the former in spite of high purchase price when diesel is relatively cheaper than gasoline. Finally we find that diesel passenger cars will capture a 42% market penetration ratio under the pricing system suggested by the Ministry of Environment of Korea.     

Model aided policy development for the market penetration of natural gas vehicles in Switzerland

Introduction of alternative fuels in the passenger car fleet is widely discussed in the light of emission reductions. Worldwide experiences show that the market introduction depends on the actions of many stakeholders, like car industry, fuel companies and consumers. The process demands well-timed actions and investments, whilst economic chances and risks are distributed highly unequally. Policy makers set the framework conditions, although the influence of the height and timing of subsidies, tax reductions and other stimulation policies are not well understood yet.The market introduction of alternative fuel vehicles was studied with the example of natural gas cars in Switzerland. Stakeholder analysis and system dynamics modeling techniques were used to characterize the system. Analyses identify difficulties and chances in the market penetration process of natural gas cars. For example, a critical balance between fueling station upgrade investments and natural gas car sales is needed. Further, it is found that large time delays exist between strategic policy actions and frequently used market penetration indicators (e.g. car sales and infrastructure expansion), limiting the ability of policy makers to assess the performance of their strategy. Referring to elements of the Balanced Scorecard approach, a set of five alternative indicators is proposed to better measure the performance of the implemented strategy.     

Vehicle mass as a determinant of fuel consumption and secondary safety performance: A comment

Attention is called to evidence that in collisions between vehicles of equal mass, and in single-vehicle collisions, there is unlikely to be a very strong effect of car size on injury severity, and that variation in crashworthiness within the set of car models of a given size has a much larger effect. Consequently, the secondary safety of a national fleet of small cars in the future could be as high as that of a national fleet of large cars today.     

A revised method for the determination of passenger car equivalencies

The operating characteristics of trucks and buses differ significantly from those of passenger cars. The former travel more slowly and occupy more space than do the latter. These are the two most prominent reasons for the need to determine the equivalencies of the large-size vehicles in terms of passenger cars, since passenger car equivalencies (PCE) are required for carrying out highway capacity calculations. This paper reviews and discusses the current approaches to such a determination, and then suggests and evaluates a revised method. A direct comparison with current practice is also presented.     

Car longevity in Sweden: A revised estimate

Previous studies have tended to exaggerate car longevity in Sweden. This has arisen because of the inclusion in the car fleet of vehicles that are no longer roadworthy. This report presents survival functions for cars for the period 1965–1984 based on estimates of the true car fleet. The mean life expectancy of cars is calculated at 14.7 years for 1984, as compared with 9.4 years in 1965. This is some 2 years below previous estimates. However, median car life in Sweden is still 1 year above that in the United States, for example.     

Environmental assessment of electrification of road transport in Norway: Scenarios and impacts

The study develops scenarios regarding the introduction of electric vehicles to the passenger vehicle fleet of Norway to reach the 2020 Norwegian greenhouse gas reduction target and a more extreme target to limit global temperature increase to two degrees. A process-based life cycle assessment approach is integrated with a temporally variable inventory model to evaluate the environmental impacts of these scenarios. We find that greenhouse gases in the reference scenario increase by 10% in 2020 in comparison to 2012; while for the more intensive improvements in conventional vehicles, this increase is reduced to 2%. For electric vehicles deployment scenarios, although the fleet share will reduce the tailpipe greenhouse gas emissions by 8–26%, with the upper end representing the two-degree reduction target, emissions reductions over the entire life cycle are only 3–15%. Electric vehicles also reduce emissions of NO_x, SO₂ and particulates reducing acidification, smog formation and particulate formation impacts, however, with addition of large numbers of electric vehicles significant trade-offs in toxicity impacts are found.     

Market introduction strategies for alternative powertrains in long-range passenger cars under competition

Alternative powertrains are considered as a promising option to significantly reduce CO₂ emissions from passenger cars. One major prerequisite is their successful market introduction. In this paper, we present a system dynamics model that allows for the evaluation of strategies for the market introduction of alternative powertrain technologies in long-range passenger cars (⩾400 km) under competition. The model considers two competing manufacturers, one first-mover and one follower, each introducing plug-in hybrids and fuel cell electric vehicles according to exogenously defined strategies, which comprise timing, pricing, and technology parameters. The manufacturers can learn from each other due to technology spillover, leading to cost reductions of the powertrains. We use an exemplary dataset for the German car market to study the manufacturers’ influence on the market success of alternative powertrains as well as the underlying mechanisms. The results indicate that in general more competition leads to higher market shares of alternatively powered vehicles and thus allows for a higher reduction of emissions. However, this might cause decreasing profits for both manufacturers, especially if the follower pursues an aggressive pricing strategy when entering the market to gain market shares from its competitor. Also, technology spillover has a positive effect on the market penetration. This particularly holds true for a low level of technology experience where high cost reductions can be achieved and for fuel cell electric vehicles where the costs of the powertrain are much higher compared to plug-in hybrids.     

Tailpipe emission from petrol driven passenger cars

Realizing the dominance of petrol-driven passenger cars of MUL over the fleet of cars in India, a case study of different models of petrol-driven passenger cars of Maruti reporting at an authorized service station of M/s R.K.B.K. Automobiles, Gorakhpur was taken up and the tailpipe emissions along with individual vehicle-related parameters were monitored for idle and fast idle test conditions. The outcome of the study relating to the effect of various vehicle-related parameters on CO and HC emissions of petrol-driven passenger cars of Maruti has led to the useful inferences, which can be used not only for predicting the emission of vehicles with respect to vehicle age and mileage, but also for automobile manufacturing sector to help them produce such environmentally benign petrol-driven passenger cars having long-lasting compliance of pollution control systems with respect to vehicle age and mileage of the petrol-driven passenger cars in the country.     

National policy towards cars: Singapore

Singapore has experienced rapid growth in car ownership, and private transport accounts for just under half of motorized trips in Singapore. Yet only since 1970 have determined efforts been made to curtail this increase. Simultaneously with this growth, Singapore's land‐use planners had called for the diversion of population growth into outlying residential estates while maintaining the central area's importance as an employment centre. The resulting anticipated concentration of commuter movement suggested a need for controls to restrain car ownership, reduce central‐area congestion and divert road users on to public transport. The policies followed are described. Those against ownership have included heavy road taxes and registration fees, with a system of discounts on the latter to discourage new purchasers except when replacing scrapped cars. Policies against car use include fuel taxes and the Area Licensing Scheme in the city centre, while parking space is also closely regulated. The measures adopted imply a goal of efficiency in promoting Singapore's planning objectives rather than environmental, safety or equity considerations, although the first two of these have lately received much more attention than formerly. The policies’ effect has been a temporary reversal in the growth of car ownership, but this growth has since resumed and recent further fee increases suggest a panic reaction rather than a coordinated strategy. Such coordination appears at present to be hampered by the fragmented administration of matters relating to transport. Other measures relating to car ownership and use in Singapore are also described.