Reactance or acceptance? Reactions towards the introduction of road pricing

We tested the opposite predictions of reactance and dissonance theory, two popular psychological theories, with regard to the responses of car drivers to the introduction of the road pricing. Reactance theory predicts that persons who are convinced that a toll will come are more opposed than less convinced persons. In contrast, dissonance theory expects that convinced persons are more in favour of road pricing than less convinced persons. Aim of the study was to test which theory is more appropriate to explain user reactions towards the toll introduction. We experimentally manipulated the perceived likelihood (low, middle, high and a control condition) of a toll introduction for private cars on German motorways (N = 140 car drivers). In accordance with the predictions of dissonance theory, results revealed clearly that convinced persons about a definite introduction of road pricing developed more positive attitudes towards road pricing than less convinced persons, i.e., the strength of conviction about the introduction of road pricing has a strong effect on the attitudinal evaluation of road pricing. The implications are discussed.     

Fit-for-duty test for estimation of drivers’ sleepiness level: Eye movements improve the sleep/wake predictor

Driver sleepiness contributes to a considerable proportion of road accidents, and a fit-for-duty test able to measure a driver’s sleepiness level might improve traffic safety. The aim of this study was to develop a fit-for-duty test based on eye movement measurements and on the sleep/wake predictor model (SWP, which predicts the sleepiness level) and evaluate the ability to predict severe sleepiness during real road driving. Twenty-four drivers participated in an experimental study which took place partly in the laboratory, where the fit-for-duty data were acquired, and partly on the road, where the drivers sleepiness was assessed. A series of four measurements were conducted over a 24-h period during different stages of sleepiness. Two separate analyses were performed; a variance analysis and a feature selection followed by classification analysis. In the first analysis it was found that the SWP and several eye movement features involving anti-saccades, pro-saccades, smooth pursuit, pupillometry and fixation stability varied significantly with different stages of sleep deprivation. In the second analysis, a feature set was determined based on floating forward selection. The correlation coefficient between a linear combination of the acquired features and subjective sleepiness (Karolinska sleepiness scale, KSS) was found to be R = 0.73 and the correct classification rate of drivers who reached high levels of sleepiness (KSS ⩾ 8) in the subsequent driving session was 82.4% (sensitivity = 80.0%, specificity = 84.2% and AUC = 0.86). Future improvements of a fit-for-duty test should focus on how to account for individual differences and situational/contextual factors in the test, and whether it is possible to maintain high sensitive/specificity with a shorter test that can be used in a real-life environment, e.g. on professional drivers.     

A forecast air pollution model applied to a hypothetical urban road pricing scheme: An empirical study in Madrid

Reducing the air pollution from increases in traffic congestion in large cities and their surroundings is an important problem that requires changes in travel behavior. Road pricing is an effective tool for reducing air pollution, as reflected currently urban road pricing outcomes (Singapore, London, Stockholm and Milan). A survey was conducted based on establishing a hypothetical urban road pricing system in Madrid (a random sample size n = 1298). We developed a forecast air pollution model with time series analysis to evaluate the consequences of possible air pollution decreases in Madrid. Results reveal that the hypothetical road pricing for Madrid could have highly significant effects on decreasing air pollution outside of the city and in the inner city during the peak operating time periods of maximum congestion (morning peak hours from 7:00 to 10:00 and evening peak hours from 18:00 to 20:00). Furthermore, this system could have significant positive effects on a shift toward using public transport and non-motorized modes inside the hypothetical toll zone. This reveals that the system has a high capacity to motivate a decrease in air pollution and impose more sustainable behavior for public transport users.     

Age related annual crash incidence rate ratios in professional drivers of heavy goods vehicles

ObjectivesEvidence concerning crash risk for older heavy vehicle drivers is sparse, making it difficult to assess if it is prudent to encourage older drivers to remain in the workforce in a climate of labour shortages. The objective of this study was to estimate annual crash rate ratios of older male heavy vehicle drivers relative to their middle aged peers.MethodsData utilized in this study includes all crashes meeting inclusion criteria involving heavy goods vehicles, categorised as rigid trucks and articulated trucks; this data was recorded by the New South Wales Roads and Traffic Authority. The exposure to the risk of a crash was represented by distance travelled for each vehicle type and year, by age of driver, as estimated by the Australian Survey of Motor Vehicle Use. Negative binomial regression modelling was applied to estimate annual crash incidence rate ratios for male drivers in various age groups.ResultsA total of 26,146 crashes occurred in New South Wales during 1999–2006, involving a total of 54,191 vehicles; removing observations that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 19,736 observations remained representing 12,501 crashes. For rigid trucks, the incidence rate ratio for drivers aged 65+ years, compared to 45–54 year olds, was 0.74 (95% CI 0.51, 0.98). For articulated trucks, the annual crash incidence rate ratio for drivers aged 65+ years compared to 45–54 year olds was 1.4 (95% CI 0.96, 1.9), and that for drivers aged 55–64 years compared to 45–54 year olds was 1.1 (95% CI 0.83, 1.3).ConclusionsOlder male professional drivers of heavy goods vehicles have lower risk of crashes in rigid vehicles, possibly due to accrued driving experience and self-selection of healthy individuals remaining in the workforce. Thus, encouraging these drivers to remain in the workforce is appropriate in the climate of labour shortages, as this study provides evidence that to do so would not endanger road safety.     

Controlled mechanical vibration applied to driver’s right heel to sustain alertness: Effects on cardiovascular behavior

Vehicle-related countermeasures to sustain driver’s alertness might improve traffic safety. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of somatosensory 20 Hz mechanical vibration, applied to driver’s right heel during prolonged, simulated, monotonous driving, on their cardiovascular hemodynamic behavior. In 12 healthy young male volunteers, during 90-min periods of simulated monotonous driving, we compared cardiovascular variables during application of 20 Hz mechanical vibration with 1.5 Hz as a control and with no vibration. The parameters recorded were indices of key cardiovascular hemodynamic phenomena, i.e., blood pressure as an indicator of stress, cardiac output, and total peripheral-vascular resistance. The principle results were that all conditions increased the mean blood pressure, and elicited a vascular-dominant reaction pattern typically observed in monotonous driving tasks. However, mean blood pressure and total peripheral-vascular resistance during the monotonous task were significantly decreased in those receiving the 20 Hz vibration as compared with 1.5 Hz and with no vibration. The observed differences indicate the cardiovascular system being more relieved from monotonous driving stress with the 20 Hz vibration. The major conclusion is that applying 20 Hz mechanical vibration to the right heel during long-distance driving in non-sleepy drivers could facilitate more physiologically appropriate status for vehicle operation and could be a potential vehicular countermeasure technology.     

Drivers’ parking location choice under uncertain parking availability and search times: A stated preference experiment

To assess parking pricing policies and parking information and reservation systems, it is essential to understand how drivers choose their parking location. A key aspect is how drivers’ behave towards uncertainties towards associated search times and finding a vacant parking spot. This study presents the results from a stated preference experiment on the choice behaviour of drivers, in light of these uncertainties. The attribute set was selected based on a literature review, and appended with the probabilities of finding a vacant parking spot upon arrival and after 8 min (and initially also after 4 min, but later dropped to reduce the survey complexity). Efficient Designs were used to create the survey design, where two rounds of pilot studies were conducted to estimate prior coefficients. Data was successfully collected from 397 respondents. Various random utility maximisation (RUM) choice models were estimated, including multinomial logit, nested logit, and mixed logit, as well as models accounting for panel effects. These model analyses show how drivers appear to accept spending time on searching for a vacant parking spot, where parking availability after 8 min ranks second most important factor in determining drivers’ parking decisions, whilst parking availability upon arrival ranks fourth. Furthermore, the inclusion of heterogeneity in preferences and inter-driver differences is found to increase the predictive power of the parking location choice model. The study concludes with an outlook of how these insights into drivers’ parking behaviour can be incorporated into traffic assignment models and used to support parking systems.     

The limits of partial life cycle assessment studies in road construction practices: A case study on the use of hydrated lime in Hot Mix Asphalt

Extensive published literature shows that hydrated lime improves Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) durability. Its impact on the environmental impact of HMA has not been investigated. This paper presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for the use of HMA without hydrated lime (classical HMA) and with hydrated lime (modified HMA) for the lifetime of a highway. System boundaries cover the life cycle from cradle-to-grave, meaning extraction of raw materials to end of life of the road. The main assumptions were: 1. Lifetime of the road 50 years; 2. Classical HMA with a life span of 10 years, maintenance operations every 10 years; 3. Modified HMA with an increase in the life span by 25%, maintenance operations every 12.5 years. For the lifetime of the road, modified HMA has the lowest environmental footprint compared to classical HMA with the following benefits: 43% less primary total energy consumption resulting in 23% lower emissions of greenhouse gases. Partial LCAs focusing only on the construction and/or maintenance phase should be used with caution since they could lead to wrong decisions if the durability and the maintenance scenarios differ. Sustainable construction technologies should not only consider environmental impact as quantified by LCA, but also economic and social impacts as well. Avoiding maintenance steps means less road works, fewer traffic jams and hence less CO₂ emissions.     

Idling stop fines for exceeding legal idling times – From the driver’s perspective

In order to reduce CO₂ emissions from motorised transport, the Taiwanese government implemented an idling policy for vehicles in 2012. This paper applies a contingent valuation framework based on stated preference questions to calculate a reasonable fine for idling vehicles based on drivers’ preferences in Taiwan. Drivers were surveyed at urban roadsides to determine the amount of money they would prefer to pay for idling in excess of the 3 min currently allowed by law. The results obtained from our spike model analysis showed that drivers would prefer to pay a fine of 1720 NTD (approximately USD 57).     

On the electrification of road transportation – A review of the environmental,economic, and social performance of electric two-wheelers

Electrification is widely considered as a viable strategy for reducing the oil dependency and environmental impacts of road transportation. In pursuit of this strategy, most attention has been paid to electric cars. However, substantial, yet untapped, potentials could be realized in urban areas through the large-scale introduction of electric two-wheelers. Here, we review the environmental, economic, and social performance of electric two-wheelers, demonstrating that these are generally more energy efficient and less polluting than conventionally-powered motor vehicles. Electric two-wheelers tend to decrease exposure to pollution as their environmental impacts largely result from vehicle production and electricity generation outside of urban areas. Our analysis suggests that the price of e-bikes has been decreasing at a learning rate of 8%. Despite price differentials of 5000 ± 1800 EUR₂₀₁₂ kW h⁻¹ in Europe, e-bikes are penetrating the market because they appear to offer an apparent additional use value relative to bicycles. Mid-size and large electric two-wheelers do not offer such an additional use value compared to their conventional counterparts and constitute niche products at price differentials of 700 ± 360 EUR₂₀₁₂ kW⁻¹ and 160 ± 90 EUR₂₀₁₂ kW⁻¹, respectively. The large-scale adoption of electric two-wheelers can reduce traffic noise and road congestion but may necessitate adaptations of urban infrastructure and safety regulations. A case-specific assessment as part of an integrated urban mobility planning that accounts, e.g., for the local electricity mix, infrastructure characteristics, and mode-shift behavior, should be conducted before drawing conclusions about the sustainability impacts of electric two-wheelers.     

Wireless charging in California: Range,recharge, and vehicle electrification

This research evaluated the potential for wireless dynamic charging (charging while moving) to address range and recharge issues of modern electric vehicles by considering travel to regional destinations in California. A 200-mile electric vehicle with a real range of 160 miles plus 40 miles reserve was assumed to be used by consumers in concert with static and dynamic charging as a strict substitute for gasoline vehicle travel. Different combinations of wireless charging power (20–120 kW) and vehicle range (100–300 miles) were evaluated. One of the results highlighted in the research indicated that travel between popular destinations could be accomplished with a 200-mile EV and a 40 kW dynamic wireless charging system at a cost of about $2.5 billion. System cost for a 200-mile EV could be reduced to less than $1 billion if wireless vehicle charging power levels were increased to 100 kW or greater. For vehicles consuming 138 kWh of dynamic energy per year on a 40 kW dynamic system, the capital cost of $2.5 billion plus yearly energy costs could be recouped over a 20-year period at an average cost to each vehicle owner of $512 per year at a volume of 300,000 vehicles or $168 per year at a volume of 1,000,000 vehicles. Cost comparisons of dynamic charging, increased battery capacity, and gasoline refueling were presented. Dynamic charging, coupled with strategic wayside static charging, was shown to be more cost effective to the consumer over a 10-year period than gasoline refueling at $2.50 or $4.00 per gallon. Notably, even at very low battery prices of $100 per kWh, the research showed that dynamic charging can be a more cost effective approach to extending range than increasing battery capacity.     

Effects of driving style on the fuel consumption of city buses under different road conditions and vehicle masses

The variance in fuel consumption caused by driving style (DS) difference exceeds 10% and reaches a maximum of 20% under different road conditions, even for experienced bus drivers. To study the influence of DS on fuel consumption, a method for summarizing DS characteristic parameters on the basis of vehicle-engine combined model is proposed. With this method, the author proposes 26 DS characteristic parameters related to fuel consumption in the accelerating, normal running, and decelerating processes of vehicles. The influence of DS characteristic parameters on fuel consumption under different road conditions and vehicle masses is quantitatively analyzed on the basis of real driving data over 100,000 km. Analysis results show that the influence of DS characteristic parameters on fuel consumption changes with road condition and vehicle mass, with road condition serving a more important function. However, the DS characteristics in the accelerating process of vehicles are decisive for fuel consumption under different conditions. This study also calculates the minimum sample size necessary for analyzing the effect of DS characteristics on fuel consumption. The statistical analysis based on the real driving data over 2500 km can determine the influence of DS on fuel consumption under a given power-train configuration and road condition. The analysis results can be employed to evaluate the fuel consumption of drivers, as well as to guide the design of Driver Advisory System for Eco-driving directly.     

Delay to major street through vehicles at two-way stop-controlled intersections

This paper describes a methodology for predicting the delay to major street through vehicles at two-way stop-controlled intersections. This delay is incurred when major street left-turn demand exceeds the available storage area and blocks the adjacent through lane. The through lane blockage problem does not generally occur with significant frequency on streets with divided cross sections that have left-turn bays or lanes; however, it frequently occurs on undivided streets due to their lack of left-turn storage. To minimize this delay, through drivers often merge with vehicles in the adjacent through lane—if there is an adequate gap for them to safely merge into. If there is no merge opportunity, then the through drivers will stay in the inside lane until the queue ahead dissipates. The through vehicle delay predicted by the methodology was found to be relatively small (i.e. less than 5 s veh⁻¹) when compared with delays commonly incurred by non-priority movements at unsignalized intersections. However, when expressed in terms of total vehicle hours of delay, the effect can be quite significant. In general, through vehicle delay increases with increasing approach flow rate and left-turn percentage. However, at flow rates in excess of about 1400 veh h⁻¹, delays increase very rapidly and there is evidence that larger left-turn percentages may have lower delays. ©     

Effects of e-bikes on bicycle use and mode share

In Norway, as in many countries, a political goal is to increase bicycle use, and the e-bike is promising in this respect. However, concerns have been raised about mode-share effects. It has been argued that if the e-bike’s only function is in cycling becoming cycling with electric assistance, there would be no benefit to either the environment or public health. Little is yet known about the use of the e-bike, or of its potential in reducing motorized travel. In the current study, 66 randomly selected participants were given an e-bike to use for a limited period of time and the results compared with those of a control group (N = 160). E-bike cycling trips increased from 0.9 to 1.4 per day, distance from 4.8 km to 10.3 km and, as a share of all transport, from 28% to 48%, whereas with the control group there was no increase in cycling. The effect of the e-bike increased with time, indicating a learning effect among users, and was greater for female than for male cyclists. There were no differences with age. Overall, the results suggest that the e-bike is indeed practical for everyday travel.     

How wide should be the adjacent area to an urban motorway to prevent potential health impacts from traffic emissions?

In recent years, several studies show that people who live, work or attend school near the main roadways have an increased incidence and severity of health problems that may be related with traffic emissions of air pollutants. The concentrations of near-road atmospheric pollutants vary depending on traffic patterns, environmental conditions, topography and the presence of roadside structures. In this study, the vertical and horizontal variation of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and benzene (C₆H₆) concentration along a major city ring motorway were analysed. The main goal of this study is to try to establish a distance from this urban motorway considered “safe” concerning the air pollutants human heath limit values and to study the influence of the different forcing factors of the near road air pollutants transport and dispersion. Statistic significant differences (p = 0.001, Kruskal–Wallis test) were observed between sub-domains for NO₂ representing different conditions of traffic emission and pollutants dispersion, but not for C₆H₆ (p = 0.335). Results also suggest significant lower concentrations recorded at 100 m away from roadway than at the roadside for all campaigns (p < 0.016 (NO₂) and p < 0.036 (C₆H₆), Mann–Whitney test). In order to have a “safe” life in homes located near motorways, the outdoor concentrations of NO₂ must not exceed 44–60.0 μg m⁻³ and C₆H₆ must not exceed 1.4–3.3 μg m⁻³. However, at 100 m away from roadway, 81.8% of NO₂ receptors exceed the annual limit value of human health protection (40 μg m⁻³) and at the roadside this value goes up to 95.5%. These findings suggest that the safe distance to an urban motorway roadside should be more at least 100 m. This distance should be further studied before being used as a reference to develop articulated urban mobility and planning policies.     

Integrated analysis of GHGs and public health damage mitigation for developing urban road transportation strategies

This study attempts to present an urban road transportation strategy focusing on the mitigation of both GHGs emission and public health damage, taking Xiamen City as a case study. We developed a Public Health and GHGs Emission model to estimate the impacts of direct energy-consumption-related GHGs emissions and public health damage in Xiamen’s road transportation strategies from 2008 to 2025, considering the environmental benefits and economic costs. Two scenarios were designed to describe future transportation strategies for Xiamen City, and mitigation potentials for both GHGs emission and public health costs were estimated from 2008 to 2025 under a series of options. The results show that enacting controls on private vehicles would be most effective to GHGs mitigation, while enacting controls on government and rental vehicles would contribute the most to NO₂ and PM2.5 reductions. Compared with the Business as Usual scenario, the Integrated scenario would achieve about a 68% energy consumption reduction and save 0.23 billion yuan (95% CI: 0.16, 0.32) in health costs in 2025. It is clear that integrated and advisable strategies need to mitigate the adverse impacts of urban road vehicles on GHGs emissions and public health and economic costs, particularly in regions of rapid urbanization.     

A traffic noise model for road intersections in the city of Cartagena de Indias,Colombia

Road traffic noise models are fundamental tools for designing and implementing appropriate prevention plans to minimize and control noise levels in urban areas. The objective of this study is to develop a traffic noise model to simulate the average equivalent sound pressure level at road intersections based on traffic flow and site characteristics, in the city of Cartagena de Indias (Cartagena), Colombia. Motorcycles are included as an additional vehicle category since they represent more than 30% of the total traffic flow and a distinctive source of noise that needs to be characterized. Noise measurements are collected using a sound level meter Type II. The data analysis leads to the development of noise maps and a general mathematical model for the city of Cartagena, Colombia, which correlates the sound levels as a function of vehicle flow within road intersections. The highest noise levels were 79.7 dB(A) for the road intersection María Auxiliadora during the week (business days) and 77.7 dB(A) for the road intersection India Catalina during weekends (non-business days). Although traffic and noise are naturally related, the intersections with higher vehicle flow did not have the highest noise levels. The roadway noise for these intersections in the city of Cartagena exceeds current limit standards. The roadway noise model is able to satisfactorily predict noise emissions for road intersections in the city of Cartagena, Colombia.     

Joint impact of competition,ownership form and economic regulation on airport performance and pricing

The combined impact of ownership form, economic regulation and competition on airport performance is analyzed using data envelopment analysis to measure cost efficiency in the first stage and regression analysis to measure the impact of the environment in the second stage. The empirical results of an analysis of European and Australian airports over a 10 year timeframe reveal that under relatively non-competitive conditions, public airports operate less cost efficiently than fully private airports. Irrespective of ownership form, regulation is necessary to emulate competitive forces thus pushing airport management towards cost efficiency and reasonable pricing policies. Under potential regional or hub competition, economic regulation inhibits airports of any ownership form from operating and pricing efficiently. Although public and fully private airports operate equally efficiently in a competitive setting, private airports still set higher aeronautical charges. Furthermore, mixed ownership forms with a majority public holding are neither cost efficient nor low price, irrespective of the level of competition.     

How driver behaviour and parking alignment affects inductive charging systems for electric vehicles

Inductive charging, a form of wireless charging, uses an electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects. This emerging technology offers an alternative solution to users having to physically plug in their electric vehicle (EV) to charge. Whilst manufacturers claim inductive charging technology is market ready, the efficiency of transfer of electrical energy is highly reliant on the accurate alignment of the coils involved. Therefore understanding the issue of parking misalignment and driver behaviour is an important human factors question, and the focus of this paper. Two studies were conducted, one a retrospective analysis of 100 pre-parked vehicles, the second a dynamic study where 10 participants parked an EV aiming to align with a charging pad with no bay markings as guidance. Results from both studies suggest that drivers are more accurate at parking laterally than in the longitudinal direction, with a mean lateral distance from the centre of the bay being 12.12 and 9.57 cm (retrospective and dynamic studies respectively) compared to longitudinally 23.73 and 73.48 cm. With current inductive charging systems having typical tolerances of approximately ±10 cm from their centre point, this study has shown that only 5% of vehicles in both studies would be aligned sufficiently accurately to allow efficient transfer of electrical energy through induction.     

Capitalization of BRT network expansions effects into prices of non-expansion areas

A before and after hedonic model is used to determine the property value impacts on properties already served by the transit system caused by extensions to Bogotá’s bus rapid transit system. Asking prices of residential properties belonging to an intervention area (N = 1407 before, 1570 after) or a control area (N = 267 before, 732 after) and offered for sale between 2001 and 2006 are used to determine capitalization of the enhanced regional access provided by the extension. Properties offered during the year the extension was inaugurated and in subsequent years have asking prices that are between 13% and 14% higher than prices for properties in the control area, after adjusting for structural, neighborhood and regional accessibility characteristics of each property. Furthermore, the appreciation is similar for properties within 500 m and properties between 500 m and 1 km of the BRT.