What influences satisfaction and loyalty in public transport? A review of the literature

Public transport ridership retention is a challenge for many cities. To develop comprehensive strategies aimed at retaining riders, it is necessary to understand the aspects of public transport that influence users to become loyal to the system. This paper analyses relevant literature regarding the causes of satisfaction and loyalty in public transport. We find that the service factors most associated with satisfaction are on-board cleanliness and comfort, courteous and helpful behaviour from operators, safety, as well as punctuality and frequency of service. On the other hand, loyalty is associated with users’ perceptions of value-for-money, on-board safety and cleanliness, interactions with personnel and the image and commitment to public transport that users feels. Furthermore, the results elucidate that the concept of loyalty is best defined based on users’ intentions to continue using the service, their willingness to recommend it to others, their overall satisfaction, but also and most importantly, their image of and involvement with public transport. Public transport users who have a positive image of the agency and consider public transport an integral component of city life are more likely to demonstrate loyalty and act like ambassadors for public transport agencies.     

Do the organizational forms affect passenger satisfaction? Evidence from Chinese public transport service

This paper presents a discussion on the relationship between organizational forms (including the ownership structure and the contractual practices) and passenger satisfaction of Chinese public transport service. To test this proposition, an original rich data set covering 4702 respondents and 58 public transport operators of 13 cities for the period 2013–2014 is used. We firstly estimate the passenger satisfaction based on customer satisfaction theory and PLS-SEM, and then take into consideration the mixed logit model to assess the effect between them. Conclusions drawn from the study are summarized as follows: ① The effect of organizational forms on the passenger satisfaction of public transport service is confirmed. ② Public transport services franchised to public ownership offer higher passenger satisfaction than those franchised to private ownership and mixed ownership. ③ Public transport services regulated by the management contracts incite more passenger satisfaction than those regulated by net cost contracts and gross cost contracts.     

Is the intention to use public transport for different travel purposes determined by different factors?

The objective of this study was to examine the psychological predictors of the intention to use public transport for three travel purposes: work or study, shopping, and leisure. An expanded version of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) which contains overall image and past behaviour is used. Data were gathered through the survey of 392 residents living in the central parts of Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. These data were analysed using the partial least squares technique. The results indicate that attitude and perceived behavioural control are significant predictors of the intention to use public transportation for various purposes. Further, they explain between 34.6% and 49.8% of the intention variance. By adding the overall image and past behaviour to the original predictors in the TPB, the explained variance, with regard to work or study, shopping, and leisure purposes, increased by 5.6%, 5.1%, and 6.8%, respectively.     

Analysis of the effect of charging needs on battery electric vehicle drivers’ route choice behaviour: A case study in the Netherlands

Electric travelling appears to dominate the transport sector in the near future due to the needed transition from internal combustion vehicles (ICV) towards Electric Vehicles (EV) to tackle urban pollution. Given this trend, investigation of the EV drivers’ travel behaviour is of great importance to stakeholders including planners and policymakers, for example in order to locate charging stations. This research explores the Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) drivers route choice and charging preferences through a Stated Preference (SP) survey. Collecting data from 505 EV drivers in the Netherlands, we report the results of estimating a Mixed Logit (ML) model for those choices. Respondents were requested to choose a route among six alternatives: freeways, arterial ways, and local streets with and without fast charging. Our findings suggest that the classic route attributes (travel time and travel cost), vehicle-related variables (state-of-charge at the origin and destination) and charging characteristics (availability of a slow charging point at the destination, fast charging duration, waiting time in the queue of a fast-charging station) can influence the BEV drivers route choice and charging behaviour significantly. When the state-of-charge (SOC) at the origin is high and a slow charger at the destination is available, routes without fast charging are likely to be preferred. Moreover, local streets (associated with slow speeds and less energy consumption) could be preferred if the SOC at the destination is expected to be low while arterial ways might be selected when a driver must recharge his/her car during the trip via fast charging.     

Are travelers substituting between transportation network companies (TNC) and public buses? A case study in Pittsburgh

Transportation - Transportation network companies (TNC) provide mobility services that are influencing travel behavior in unknown ways due to limited TNC trip-level data. How they interact with...     

Why (not) abolish fares? Exploring the global geography of fare-free public transport

Transportation - Although the policy of abolishing fares in public transport—here referred to as “fare-free public transport” (FFPT)—exists in nearly 100 localities...     

Does the increase of public transit fares deteriorate air quality in Beijing?

Since 2006, Beijing lowered its public transit fares as a way to improve air quality. However, Beijing increased public transportation fare prices from December 28, 2014, and commuters pay for the distance they traveled rather than a flat fare. This paper explores the effect of Beijing public transit fares increase on air quality. We collect daily data of air pollution and weather variables and use synthetic control method of Abadie and Gardeazabal (2003) to select control units. We then estimate a difference-in-differences model and assess the effect of the policy on air quality index (AQI). We find a 16.28% increase in air pollution in short run. However, we find no longer-run effect on air quality.     

Latent stage model for carsharing usage frequency estimation with Montréal case study

In order to predict the monthly usage frequency of members of a car-sharing scheme by analysing the gradual change of behaviour over time, a new model is proposed based on the Markov Chains model with latent stages. The model accounts for changing patterns of frequency from soon after signing up to later stages by including five latent user ‘life stages’. In applying the model to panel data from Montreal’s free-floating carsharing service the authors calculate each user’s ’lifetime’ applied to ‘system operation time’, the time period since the start of the scheme. Three-fold validation reveals effective performance of the model for both lifetime and system operation time dimensions. The model is further applied to illustrate how previous carsharing experience and the extension of the scheme to a larger area can affect usage frequency changes. We conclude that this approach is effective for usage prediction for novel transport schemes.

     

Attitudes towards the role of Cost–Benefit Analysis in the decision-making process for spatial-infrastructure projects: A Dutch case study

This paper provides a systematic overview of the attitudes of key actors in the Dutch Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA) practice towards the role of CBA in the decision-making process for spatial-infrastructure projects. The main aim of this paper is to scrutinize the extent to which there is agreement among these Dutch actors in regard to the role of the CBA in the decision-making process. A secondary goal is to provide possible explanations for agreements and controversies among key actors in the Dutch CBA practice. In this study two research methods are combined to study the key actors’ attitudes. Firstly, 86 key actors (e.g. consultants, scientists, policy makers) were interviewed in-depth. Secondly, 74 of them completed a written questionnaire. The most important conclusion of this paper is that in the Dutch CBA practice there is agreement that CBA must have a role in the appraisal process of spatial-infrastructure projects. However, there is a lot of controversy among economists and spatial planners in the Dutch CBA practice concerning the value that is and should be assigned to CBA in the decision-making process. Economists predominantly believe that not enough value is assigned to the CBA in the decision-making process, whereas spatial planners predominantly think that too much value is assigned to the CBA. Both economists and spatial planners believe that this controversy is problematic as it results in debates about the pros and cons of CBA instead of the pros and cons of the spatial-infrastructure projects. This paper analyzes some solutions for this controversy.     

Estimation of airport noise impacts on public health. A case study of İzmir Adnan Menderes Airport

The air transport industry is showing rapid growth in line with the call for meeting the requirements of a rising population. Noise mapping is more useful than surveys and measurements to estimate the effects of noise on public health. In this paper, noise levels for the day, evening and night time slices around İzmir Adnan Menderes Airport were calculated by use of the SoundPLAN 7.2 software according to the European Noise Directive, and the “ECAC Doc. 29-Interim” method was applied for the computation of the aircraft noise. Air traffic data of year 2012, technical information about the airport and geographical data including the layers of elevation, residential buildings, auxiliary buildings, hospitals and schools were used as the main inputs for the model developed in the study. The model was found to perform well for the areas closer to the airport. The results of the study suggested that the area at the north side of the airport, where the city center of İzmir is located, is more affected than other areas. The threshold value of 55 dB(A) was found to be exceeded in 0.3% of the land area covered by İzmir City center during the time slice “day”. The results showed that about 2% of the resident population was exposed to noise levels of 55 dB(A) or higher during day-time in İzmir. In addition, it was understood that the number of people who are potentially exposed to high noise levels and threatened by several illness such as hypertension and sleep disturbances is significant in the surrounding area of the airport. It is thought to be important for airport operators to manage the airport capacity based on the flight schedules in order to control the noise exposure level around the airport.     

Technical innovation vs. sustainability – A case study from the Taiwanese automobile industry

The impact of global warming and climate change is the most critical challenge of the 21st century. The greenhouse effect caused by technological development and industrial pollution has accelerated the speed of global warming. To effectively reduce global warming and encourage sustainable enterprise development, a comparative analysis approach is used to examine various domestic automotive products which utilize the up-to-date innovative technology. Their contributions to fuel consumption and emissions of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO₂), are then investigated. This study focuses on technical innovation in a conventional engine and output power. The results indicate that innovative engines (such as the Ford turbo petrol/diesel engine, the EcoBoost/TDCi) have improved energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. In addition, an improvement in output power (such as Toyota hybrid vehicles) has also improved energy consumption and CO₂ emissions.     

What is the market potential of plug-in electric vehicles as commercial passenger cars? A case study from Germany

Commercial passenger cars are a possible early market segment for plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). Compared to privately owned vehicles, the commercial vehicle segment is characterized by higher mileage and a higher share of vehicle sales in Germany. To this point, there are only few studies which analyze the commercial passenger car sector and arrive at contradictory results due to insufficient driving profile data with an observation period of only one day. Here, we calculate the market potential of PEVs for the German commercial passenger car sector by determining the technical and economical potential for PEVs in 2020 from multi-day driving profiles. We find that commercial vehicles are better suited for PEVs than private ones since they show higher average annual mileage and drive more regularly. About 87% of the analyzed three-week vehicle profiles can technically be fulfilled by battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with an electric driving range of about 110 km while plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) with an electric range of 40 km could obtain an electric driving share of 60% on average. In moderate energy price scenarios, PEVs can reach a market share of 2–4% in the German commercial passenger car sales by 2020 and especially the large commercial branches (Trade, Manufacturing, Administrative services and Other services) are important. However, our analysis shows a high sensitivity of results to energy and battery prices as well as electric consumptions.     

Analysis of the optimal length of road expansion – A case study of the Taipei metropolitan area

This study explores the optimal investment in the length of an expanded section of road to mitigate the congestion on a transportation corridor. It is assumed that one end of the road is in the central business district (CBD) and that the households are uniformly distributed along the road. Each individual makes trips from his/her residence to the CBD. Trip demand is elastic and depends on the cost of the trip (including congestion costs). During the first stage, the government determines the length of the expanded section given the width of that section. In the second stage, road users determine their trip demands by taking into consideration the trip cost function. In the process of solving this problem, the equilibrium traffic volume is first solved using differential equations. The optimal length of the expanded section is then solved by maximizing the social welfare. The analysis is then applied to the case of the Tucheng city – Banciao city – Taipei CBD corridor in the Taipei metropolitan area. The scheme of road expansion without tolling performs closely to the first-best scheme for the case of a high potential demand. This study’s approach can serve as valuable reference for city planners engaged in road planning in a transportation corridor between the CBD and satellite cities in a metropolitan area.     

How does commute duration affect subjective well-being? A case study of Chinese cities

Transportation - Previous research on the role of commute duration in subjective well-being (SWB) has paid little attention to developing countries and the possible pathways determining the...     

Does public transit improvement affect commuting behavior in Beijing,China? A spatial multilevel approach

Developing countries like China have experienced substantial city transformations over the past decade. City transformations are characterized by transportation innovations that allow individuals to access to speedy commuting modes for work activities and offer potential influences on commuting behavior. This paper examines the potential effects of subway system expansion in Beijing on commuting behavior. Our methodological design controls for spatial effects by employing Bayesian multilevel binary logistic models with spatial random effects. Using cross-sectional individual surveys in Beijing, the results suggest that there is a significant rise in subway commuting trips while non-motorized and bus commuting trips are reduced with the new subway expansion. Model comparison results show evidence about the presence of spatial effects in influencing the role of built environment characteristics to play in the commuting behavior analysis.     

Linear,non-linear,bi-directional? Testing the nature of the relationship between mobility and satisfaction with life

Transportation - Travel is one of the most important facilitators of life and has been widely acknowledged as a prerequisite for economic and social activity. Research developing in recent decades...     

What drives freight transportation customer loyalty? Diverging marketing approaches for the air freight express industry

Transportation - Going beyond the traditional business to consumer air transport passenger perspective, this paper examines what we can learn from combining transaction marketing (TM) and...     

Mapping spatial accessibility of public transportation network in an urban area – A case study of Shanghai Hongqiao Transportation Hub

Accessibility is a key metric when assessing the efficiency of an urban public transportation network. This research develops a methodology for evaluating spatial accessibility of a system with multiple transportation modes in an urban area, Shanghai Hongqiao Transportation Hub (SHTH) and its surrounding area. The method measured total traveling time as an accessibility indicator, which summed the time people spent on walking, waiting, transfer and transportation in a journey from the SHTH to destinations. Spatial accessibility was classified into five levels from very high to very low. The evaluation was conducted at a cell-by-cell basis under an overall scenario and three specific scenarios. Evaluation results were presented in a series of maps. The overall accessibility scenario shows a concentric-ring trend decreasing from the SHTH to the fringe of the study area. Areas along the metro lines generally have a much higher accessibility than those along the bus lines with some exceptions where bus routes play a more important role. Metro stations identified as either time-saving or time-consuming points are mainly distributed around the urban center. Some suggestions are proposed for improving accessibility of public transportation network in the study area. The results from this study provide a scientific basis and useful information for supporting decision-making on urban planning, and assisting dwellers to travel in a time-efficient manner. The methodology offers a simple, flexible way to the spatial evaluation, metro station identification and network modification of accessibility of public transportation systems with multiple transportation modes.     

Are we ready to embrace connected and self-driving vehicles? A case study of Texans

While connected, highly automated, and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) will eventually hit the roads, their success and market penetration rates depend largely on public opinions regarding benefits, concerns, and adoption of these technologies. Additionally, the introduction of these technologies is accompanied by uncertainties in their effects on the carsharing market and land use patterns, and raises the need for tolling policies to appease the travel demand induced due to the increased convenience. To these ends, this study surveyed 1088 respondents across Texas to understand their opinions about smart vehicle technologies and related decisions. The key summary statistics indicate that Texans are willing to pay (WTP) $2910, $4607, $7589, and $127 for Level 2, Level 3, and Level 4 automation and connectivity, respectively, on average. Moreover, affordability and equipment failure are Texans’ top two concerns regarding AVs. This study also estimates interval regression and ordered probit models to understand the multivariate correlation between explanatory variables, such as demographics, built-environment attributes, travel patterns, and crash histories, and response variables, including willingness to pay for CAV technologies, adoption rates of shared AVs at different pricing points, home location shift decisions, adoption timing of automation technologies, and opinions about various tolling policies. The practically significant relationships indicate that more experienced licensed drivers and older people associate lower WTP values with all new vehicle technologies. Such parameter estimates help not only in forecasting long-term adoption of CAV technologies, but also help transportation planners in understanding the characteristics of regions with high or low future-year CAV adoption levels, and subsequently, develop smart strategies in respective regions.     

Measuring the car ownership impact of free-floating car-sharing – A case study in Basel,Switzerland

Free-floating car-sharing schemes operate without fixed car-sharing stations, ahead reservations or return-trip requirements. Providing fast and convenient motorization, they attract both public transport users and (former) car-owners. Thus, their impact on individual travel behavior depends on the user type. Estimating the travel behavior impact of these systems therefore requires quantitative data. Using a two-wave survey approach (shortly after launch of the scheme plus one year later) including travel diaries, this research indicates that (due to their membership) 6% of the free-floating car-sharing customers reduce their private vehicle ownership. Moreover, the results suggest that free-floating car-sharing both complements and competes with station-based car-sharing.