Constraint Mapping as a Means of Further Refining Saltmarsh Re-Creation Opportunities for the UK Solent Region

Based on geomorphological criteria, the Coastal Habitat Management Plan (CHaMP) for the Solent identified some 4,800 hectares of land potentially suitable for the creation of intertidal habitat, principally saltmarsh, through the use of managed realignment. Using “constraint mapping,” this study set out to illustrate that limitations to habitat re-creation through inundation are not merely geomorphological in nature. Indeed, a broad range of social, political, legal, technical, and economic constraints exist and must be evaluated in conjunction with physical parameters if the objectives of the European Birds and Habitats Directives are to be met, and so that future coastal defense policies ensure maintenance of the “favorable conservation status” of designated sites. A numerical filter system has been used to re-evaluate individual sites to establish “realistic” opportunities for compensatory saltmarsh creation in the Solent. As a result of taking into account wider socioeconomic constraints, it is clear that fewer areas are available for habitat creation purposes than were initially identified in the Solent CHaMP study.     

CZARA of 1990: A Critical Time for Coastal Management

To appreciate the present, sometimes you need to reflect on the past and wonder “what if?” This is one of those times. In recognition of the 40th anniversary of the Coastal Zone Management Act and acknowledgment of the dedication of the program's practitioners, it is important to note that the successful implementation of the Nation's primary coastal law has depended, and will continue to depend, on its legitimacy and institutionalization in the political culture of the country. Today, the national coastal management program, while underfunded and, in recent years, subject to wavering political support, has nevertheless reached a certain level of stability to safeguard the country's coastal resources. It is fitting, therefore, in this special issue of Coastal Management to recall a time when the future of the CZMA was in serious doubt.     

Community Perceptions of a World Heritage Nomination Process: The Ningaloo Coast Region of Western Australia

The remote Ningaloo Coast region, the location of Australia's largest fringing coral reef, was designated as World Heritage (WH) in 2011 based on its outstanding natural values. In the past, the WH nomination process predominantly involved experts and state officials. More recently, local community involvement has become a required part of the process, representing a move toward participatory governance that can potentially influence WH designation. Understanding community perceptions of the WH nomination process provides insights into the consequences of community involvement. Interviews were conducted with key local community members involved in the Ningaloo Coast WH nomination. Interviews focused on the perceptions and experience of the nomination process and local meanings of WH designation. Results indicated that while there was support for WH designation, the nomination process was seen as controversial. Community involvement was dominated by local political and social concerns, mistrust, misinformation, and perceived unfairness. Concerns were influenced by past and current government actions and decision-making in the region. The article identifies some challenges associated with local community involvement in a WH nomination process. These challenges raise questions about participatory governance and how local community's engage in the WH nomination process for coastal regions identified by experts as globally significant.     

Community Participation in Marine Protected Area Implementation: A Case Study of the Sitka Local Area Management Plan

This article has two goals: (1) to consider the underlying semantic confusion surrounding the promotion of “social science” in the design and establishment of marine protected areas and (2) to demonstrate the successful community processes that led to the designation of Sitka, Alaska's Local Area Management Plan (LAMP) for halibut fishing in the vicinity of Sitka. Uniting a collection of diverse “social” issues creates ambiguity in actual problem solving—extensive generalization can not resolve a specific issue. The Sitka LAMP is a specific case with clear details and a traceable history of success, designed to sustain the healthy status of Sitka's local halibut resource. The development of the Sitka LAMP designation demonstrates the importance of community collaboration and exhibits methods that could potentially be modeled in other locations.     

Geography and Coastal Management

This article presents an overview of the relationship between geography and coastal management. It explores the nature of geography as well as the geographical underpinnings of key notions within coastal management, in particular, “coast,” “conflict,” and “integration.” The article considers the integrated coastal management process and tracks the influence of geography on the development of the discipline's theory and practice, as well as its academic infrastructure. The article concludes that although geography both underpins and offers useful insights into coastal management, a challenge remains to explore in greater depth the benefits of applied geographical approaches to the management of coasts.     

Integrating visual management into the coastal zone planning process: The Massachusetts experience

Abstract

This paper concerns the limitations on integrating visual management into the coastal zone planning process as exemplified by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, a state with a strong tradition of “home rule”; and a CZM implementation program based on a “networking”; of existing state authorities. The implications of the Massachusetts experience are that: (a) management of esthetic resources at the state level continues to be much less of a priority than management of ecological resources such as wetlands or floodplains; (b) visual management has yet to engender a strongly supportive constituency beyond that concerned with historic preservation; (c) project review focusing on visual impacts may be a more appropriate activity for local rather than state government; and (d) the technical aspects of visual management or impact assessment are far more advanced than their political acceptability. Political realities, together with the decision that implementation of the program should be based on a networking of existing authorities, thus determined the degree to which visual management could be incorporated into the state's program. As a result, the program's principal instruments of visual management became a strengthening of existing programs such as Wild and Scenic Rivers, reliance on wetland protection statutes to indirectly protect natural scenic values, and the use of the federal consistency provisions of the Coastal Zone Management Act to foster focused growth patterns through provision of publicly funded infrastructures. Esthetically oriented project review, with the exception of potential impacts on historic sites, was left to the discretion of local government, and a technical assistance program was created to provide funding or professional skills to communities interested in developing their own esthetic controls or design review processes. Maine, Rhode Island, and other New England states have followed a similar course.     

MMAS in Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape

This article is part of a special issue that provides insight into global conservation science by analyzing a 5-year, $12.5 million global marine conservation science and policy program. In this article, we summarize the development of the program in Coiba Island in the Gulf of Chiriquí Panama, and the Galapagos islands of Ecuador, both part of the Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape. In Panama, the history of Coiba island as a federal penal colony shaped the process and outcome of the program. In the Galapagos, the unique science history of the islands and subsequent international recognition influenced the outcomes of regional marine managed areas.     

Competing Visions for Marine Tenure and Co-Management: Genesis of a Marine Management Area System in Chile

Chile has been attempting to establish a Management Area (MA) system that melds the use of marine protected areas with marine tenure. The process has brought to the fore the competing interests of various user groups: artisanal fishermen, marine science professionals, government managers, tourist developers, and the Navy. We explore the core relationships among fishermen and the ecologists and biologists whose work is essential for establishing and maintaining a MA. The MA system's creation and implementation raise the key question of whether a marine tenure system can work under the conditions imposed by the Chilean government. There is a need to recognize and reconcile contradictions in a government management model that strives simultaneously to be a conservation zone and a financially profitable co-management zone. This article examines the MA management system's fault lines in the context of Chile's political economy, and the intimate interaction of management with fishermen's cultural survival strategies.     

Polish shipping and shipping policy

Following a period of about 120 years, when external political pressures prevented Poland from engaging in maritime commercial activities, the end of World War I marked an important epoch in Poland's maritime history. Although the Peace Treaties gave Poland access to the sea and the right to use Gdansk, it was not until 1926, when Poland's first shipping company was established and Poland's new port of Gdynia opened, that her new status as a maritime country was fashioned. This paper traces the development of Polish shipping from 1918 to the present time; discusses the factors related to Poland's problems in the sphere of international maritime transport; and outlines Poland's present shipping policy.     

The Maritime Labour Convention, 2006—reflections on challenges for flag State implementation

This paper begins by providing a brief overview of the International Labour Organization’s Maritime Labour Convention, 2006 (MLC, 2006), noting that this Convention, often called the “Seafarers’ bill of rights”, seeks to achieve both social and labour rights (“decent work”) for seafarers and fair competition (achieving a level-playing field) for shipowners. It has been described as the “fourth pillar” of the international maritime regulatory regime complementing the major International Maritime Organization conventions. The paper provides a brief update on international efforts to achieve the 30/33 formula needed to bring the Convention into force [at present, the tonnage element, 33% has been achieved already with coverage now at 54% of the world fleet (by gross tonnage), with 18 ratifications]. It then explores challenges faced by flag States in connection with capacity to implement the ship inspection and certification system under the MLC, 2006 and other difficulties with respect to legal implementation by the flag States. The paper also comments on some challenges in connection with port State, coastal State and labour-supplying State responsibilities. The paper points out that the MLC, 2006 is a comprehensive code that covers diverse issues and a wider range of both ships and seafarers than previous conventions. It often requires interdepartmental cooperation to implement its requirements at the national level. The paper concludes that, despite the slower pace of ratification in some regions, largely because of the recent economic and other crises, it appears that many actors in the maritime sector are already actively engaged in MLC, 2006 implementation, often ahead of governments. The question is not “if” but “when” the formula will be achieved to allow the MLC, 2006 to enter into force.     

A Review of Dunes in Today's Society

Prior to Superstorm Sandy, the importance of dunes had been widely overlooked in many coastal societies. However, the stark contrast between New Jersey coastal areas that were and were not protected by dunes has created a positive paradigm shift in coastal law and public dune opinion. Government officials are mandating the construction of artificial dunes along New Jersey's coast, but it is necessary for communities to first understand the complex nature of these unique systems. With the proper knowledge, a dune can be both a protective structure as well as a working habitat that will ultimately better protect upland infrastructure and improve beach health. However, a general lack of terminological consistency among formal media and governing entities makes properly quantifying and assessing dune health difficult and unwarranted ecological conclusions inevitable. Here, dune terminology, “blowout,” “washout,” and “bowling” is clarified and defined and the dynamic nature of dunes is explained.     

Natural Coast Protection and Use in China: Implications of Resource Protection “Redline” Policies

A significant proportion of China's coast has been developed for aquaculture, salt industry, ports and harbors, industry, reclamation, and so on. The stated target, of keeping at least 35% mainland coast in natural status until 2020, in the National Marine Functional Zoning Plan (2011–2020) is unlikely to be realized. This article analyzes the current protection and utilization of mainland coast and discusses effects of coastal over-development. The use of the “redline” policy in natural resources protection, including forests, cultivated land, freshwater and marine ecology is reviewed, and the “redline” policy is advised to be adopted in natural coast protection through such measures as total length control, buffer zones, regional control, inter-region engagement, and efficient artificial coastal areas use and restoration.     

Viewpoint: The Social Dimension in Icelandic Fisheries Governance

Fisheries are a complex mixture of social, political, economic, and biological aspects, and often biological or economic end goals are given priority in fisheries governance. However, there is a growing trend around the world to include non-economic social objectives in fisheries management schemes, e.g., supporting rural communities, increasing opportunities for newcomers or part-time fishermen, or providing equitable access for culturally and historically important fisheries. In Iceland, fisheries management has given biological and economic goals' precedence over social goals, and there is no formal inclusion of a social science advisory body or formalized direct input from all relevant stakeholders in the fisheries governance process. Non-economic social sciences such as geography, anthropology, sociology, and political science can add important information and considerations that in turn make fisheries more sustainable in the long run. In this paper, we explain the role of social science in fisheries governance, explore how social aspects are addressed in other fisheries governance schemes, and review highlights from fisheries social science research in Iceland. We hope to generate a meaningful conversation regarding the possibilities of a modern, pioneering fisheries' governance process in Iceland where social, economic, and biological goals and research are all given equal attention.     

State ocean policy initiatives in Florida

Abstract

A territorial sea comprising 6.7 million acres of offshore lands extending three geographic miles into the Atlantic Ocean three marine leagues (nine geographic miles) into the Gulf of Mexico makes Florida the second largest “oceanowning”; state in the contiguous United States. Florida's history, climate, economic development, and worldwide reputation have evolved from the state's relationship with the sea. The state is now becoming aware that aggressive management of its ocean resources is necessary to preserve the future of that relationship. The purpose of this article is to present some of Florida's recent legal and policy initiatives that have been directed toward better understanding and management of ocean resources and uses.     

Out of sight is not out of mind: Public opposition to ocean incineration

Abstract

During the early 1980s, ocean incineration emerged as one of the hottest issues in the field of hazardous waste management. Ocean incineration involves the thermal destruction of liquid hazardous wastes on specially designed ships and was promoted by the Environmental Protection Agency and powerful industry groups as part of the solution to liquid hazardous waste disposal. Attempts to adopt ocean incineration led to heated debate and apparent defeat of efforts to introduce this technology. The arguments advanced by proponents and opponents are examined. Success of environmental groups opposed to ocean incineration is explained with reference to technical, environmental, socio‐political, and legal factors. Ocean incineration, promoted as a solution to “not‐in‐my‐backyard”; opponents, instead ran afoul of region wide opposition by coastal residents for whom the sea is a common backyard.     

Safety, security, the environment and shipping: The problem of making effective policies

This paper examines where problems of shipping policy jurisdiction between international, supra-national and national levels have occurred. These range across the issues of public goods — safety, security and environment— and show up inadequacies in the current shipping policy-making processes. New frameworks — commonly termed “polycentric governance” and “multi-level governance”— sensitive to the complexities of the maritime industry and its associated political structure urgently need to be adopted. The paper is based upon research work recently carried out across the European Union supported by a number of publications and will include examples from Greece, the United Kingdom, Spain, France and also the new member states. Suggestions for improvements in policy-making structures will be made and recommendations put forward for consideration by policy-makers in the maritime sector at all jurisdictional levels     

Planning for resilient coastal communities: Lessons from ecological systems theory

Abstract

One of the least understood aspects of coastal zone utilization is how communities respond and adapt to changes occurring in the marine environment and to changes which transform the socioeconomic, political, and administrative environment of the coastal zone. In Atlantic Canada, it is estimated that there are some 1,300 “fishing communities,”; yet these communities vary considerably in terms of population size, proximity to urban centers, and dependence upon the local resource base to provide employment opportunities and alternatives. Although numerous government planning documents have purported to support “community revitalization”; and “self‐sufficiency/self‐reliance,”; few inquiries have been directed toward ascertaining how communities have maintained resiliency in the face of unexpected and sudden shock, or have adapted to more gradual change. This essay argues that human communities and ecological systems may have similar attributes, and that appropriate resource development and management planning should take account of these traits as well as the sustaining structural support mechanisms.     

“桑吉”轮油污损害赔偿法律适用问题探析

“桑吉”轮所载货物凝析油,不属于《1992年责任公约》所调整的“持久性油类”范畴,此外其还装载有1900余吨船用燃料油。该案作为世界上首例“凝析油”油船海难事故,因此导致油污损害赔偿法律适用问题并不明朗,适用不同法律可能导致相关方赔偿责任限制差异巨大。探究“桑吉”轮案油污损害赔偿法律适用问题,不仅有助于满足我国现实司法需要,更可为我国乃至世界处理此类油污损害问题提供有益借鉴。文中将从国际公约及国内法角度,对“桑吉”轮油污损害赔偿问题可能涉及的法律适用问题进行探析。     

The Teachable Moments on Marine Mammal Tours: Watching versus Swim-With Tours

With the continuing growth of the tourism industry over recent decades, has come a change in tourist behavior from the traditional stereotypical 3-S tourist (sun, sand, sex) to an increasingly sophisticated and demanding tourist. These “new” tourists like to learn about history, nature, and wildlife, and they expect an educational component on wildlife tours. This study investigated swim-with-dolphin tours in Kaikoura, New Zealand with regard to the educational content and the overall anatomy of these tours, using data from observations on a total of 32 tours during December 2011. The resulting data were then compared with the data from Hrycik and Forestell's study, which investigated the content of questions asked by passengers on whale-watching tours in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Results of the on-tour observations indicate that the surveyed tours display a structured approach to interpretation, which is customized to the specific tour anatomy of a “swim-with” tour, and varies in some parts significantly from “watch-only” tour interpretation.