Aquaculture Parks in the Coastal Zone: A Review of Legal and Policy Issues in the Gulf of Mexico State Waters

The goal of this study is to apply industrial park concepts to the development of aquaculture parks in public waters. The objectives are to identify the permitting process, relevant agencies, and legislation needed to facilitate development. Gulf of Mexico states are surveyed: private parks exist in Florida, but no public parks have developed yet; plans for parks exist in Mississippi, but lack of funding prevents development; no regulations prohibit parks in Alabama, although none currently exist; Texas regulations hinder development of parks; and an experimental park has been proposed in Louisiana, but regulatory gaps have delayed permit issuance.     

Economic Activity Derived from Whale-Based Tourism in Vava'u,Tonga

This article reports on a study that estimated the economic activity of snorkel-with-whales tourism in the small, isolated island group of Vava'u, Tonga. This research shows that these activities generate important economic and other benefits and that these benefits grew from a relatively modest USD500,000 per year in 1999 to USD5 million per year by 2009. Data from self-reply questionnaires completed by holiday-makers who traveled by aircraft (n = 499) and yacht-based visitors (n = 52) showed that whales have become the predominant attraction for visitors to these remote islands. Interviews with tour operators (n = 10) confirmed the increasing influence of whale based activities over all tourism in the Vava'u area.     

Overcoming Governance and Institutional Barriers to Integrated Coastal Zone,Marine Protected Area,and Tourism Management in Sri Lanka

One of the major barriers to addressing complex social–ecological issues through integrated coastal management (ICM) is a lack of intergovernmental coordination and cooperation (horizontal and vertical fragmentation). This article describes an effort to overcome the barriers to ICM in Sri Lanka by fostering intergovernmental collaboration and initiating adaptive governance to restore one town, Hikkaduwa, and its associated marine protected area (MPA) and coastal zone habitats. Administrators from 12 national and local governmental agencies that are responsible for aspects of coastal management in the town of Hikkaduwa participated in a series of formal and informal workshops and a week-long tour of ICM projects in the Philippines. Outcomes demonstrate that these informal and formal meetings, workshops, and travel experiences fostered trust, social capital, and attitudinal organizational commitment (AOC). The experiences motivated members to overcome vertical and horizontal governance fragmentation through the formation of an independent intergovernmental committee for the restoration of Hikkaduwa into a sustainable and resilient community. ICM activities undertaken by the newly formed organization suggest that internal leadership capacity, effective local–national partnerships, explicitly linked ecological–economic projects, and long-term commitment are necessary conditions for success. Overall, attainment of sustainability and resilience through successful ICM should be thought of as a journey and not a destination.     

Constructing Paradise: The Impacts of Big Tourism in the Mexican Coastal Zone

Although coastal tourism is often looked to as a way of generating foreign revenue, it can also engender a range of social and environmental impacts. From an historical perspective, this article examines the growth of Cancún in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo since the late 1960s. The article documents a range of socioeconomic and environmental impacts associated with the rise of coastal tourism, and suggests that centralized planning and the provision of physical and financial infrastructure does not prevent those impacts. The principal causes of these impacts are also described, including changes in land-usage, population, tourism markets, foreign market penetration and control, an emphasis on short-term economic gain, weak regulatory enforcement, and an overall lack of integration of coastal zone management.     

A Training Framework for Understanding Conflict in the Coastal Zone

The coastal zone is attractive for human settlement because it tends to be resource rich, providing a good location to generate incomes and livelihoods. Equally, however, it is a complex and powerful natural environment, which means that the coastal zone often becomes a focus of conflict with multiple users competing for limited space and resources. Understanding the causes of, and determining solutions to, the ensuing problems requires inputs from a range of analyses across sectors and disciplines. However, different disciplinary and sectoral approaches frequently use different investigative methods, language, and means of presenting results. This article presents a framework that has been developed in collaboration with Indian institutions over the past three years in an effort to address some of these fundamental problems of analysis and translation into policy action. Key components addressed by the framework are strengthening the capacity to practice, knowing how to proceed and how to find out what needs to be known using experience-based problem solving.     

Coastal and Ocean Science-Based Decision-Making in the Gulf of California: Lessons and Opportunities for Improvement

The Gulf of California hosts astounding biodiversity that supports numerous economic activities in the region. These activities, and emerging threats, are placing pressure on the region's ecosystems. Government and civil society are working to address threats through several conservation and management mechanisms. Nevertheless, the use and incorporation of scientific information—a key component for creating effective and durable management—is still deficient. This article presents the concept of science integration and discusses the findings of a study that assesses the regional landscape, existing institutional arrangements, and capacity for using science to inform policy and management decisions. It also explores the current use of science within fisheries policy and management and the capacity of the National Network of Information and Research of Fisheries and Aquaculture (RENIIPA) and the State Fisheries and Aquaculture Councils, two mechanisms in the region. Finally, it shares lessons learned and offers recommendations on how the region can strengthen science-based decision-making. Results indicate that while there are some actors in the Gulf of California producing relevant science, there is varying capacity of intermediary groups connecting producers with users of science, or mechanisms in place to ensure that science is being utilized in decision-making processes. Moreover, despite having a well-developed landscape of producers and intermediaries and mechanisms in place for fisheries management in the region, effective science integration is not occurring.     

The Causal Effects of Place Attachment and Tourism Development on Coastal Residents' Environmentally Responsible Behavior

Coastal areas are generally known as high-usage areas for residential, recreational, and tourism purposes. Coastal residents, as well as local visitors, therefore, can play an important role in protecting coastal resources. The purpose of this study was to identify important factors that could promote residents' environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The two concepts, place attachment and attitudes toward tourism development (ATTD), were included to verify causal relationships of ERB. For data analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were conducted. Study results showed that place identity fully mediated the relationship between place dependence and ERB. With respect to the two dimensions of ATTD, there was a positive relationship between perceived benefits and ERB, while perceived concerns mediated this relationship. To promote ERB, the study emphasized the importance of developing place identity by providing diverse economical, socio-cultural, and recreational coastal benefits. In addition, involving those residents, who are positively and negatively impacted by tourism development, in the process of sustainable tourism development will develop more effective sustainable development strategies by reflecting local residents' opinions and preferences.     

A Race for Marine Space: Science,Values, and Aquaculture Planning in New Zealand

New Zealand (NZ) has developed a coastal management framework that includes large watersheds and territorial waters (out to 12 nautical miles). The article describes the developing conflicts associated with the biophysical and epistemological dimensions of expanding coastal marine space for aquaculture. We first review aquaculture policy in NZ, and recent evidence of the biophysical impacts from increasing terrestrial inputs on marine ecosystems. We provide a case study of conflict over a recent proposal to expand salmon aquaculture in the Marlborough Sounds, which covers some 4,000 km² of sounds, islands, and peninsulas. Based on information and data from interviews of stakeholders involved in the aquaculture planning, we describe three diverse epistemologies of science—client-based science, civic science, and Māori traditional ecological knowledge. We conclude the article with a critical review of how to better resolve spatial conflicts that often emerge in coastal management and planning.     

Transaction Costs of Community-Based Coastal Resource Management: The Case of San Miguel Bay,Philippines

This study estimates and analyzes the transaction costs (TC) associated with the implementation of a multilevel and multistakeholder program such as a community-based coastal resource management program. Results show that TC accounted for 37% of the total project cost (TPC). The instability of financial support resulted in high TC, which was estimated to be 86% of the TPC during the implementation phase of the coastal resource management projects. The share of the total TC was highest among the people's organizations (POs) that were the beneficiaries of the program. The number of people involved in the transactions, the number of activities undertaken, and the success index of the POs were among the factors significantly affecting the TC. Analysis also shows that while higher TC led to higher success index of the POs at the initial stage of the project implementation, an increasing level of TC eventually slowed down their performance.     

沿海水上交通安全的风险评估研究

船舶水上交通安全的有效监管一直是业内研究人员十分重视的研究课题。近年来,风险管理的理念使得事故后的安全管理朝向事故发生前的风险评估。结合福建沿海水上交通近7年来的实际情况,运用综合安全评估方法(FSA,Formal Safety Assessment),在对沿海水上交通安全的现状与未来特点分析的基础上,经风险矩阵计算,得出沿海水上交通风险定量化特征。然后,提出基于协同模式的风险控制方案、网格化管理、长效机制等方面的水上交通风险动态管理的体系与机制,内容涵盖了危险源分析、风险评估、危机预警与风险干预、应急救援、安全监督与管理等。     

Estimating the Economic Benefit of SCUBA Diving in the Similan Islands,Thailand

This article reports the results of the travel cost model using the standard and the truncated count data models to estimate the economic value of the Similan Islands, Thailand, from SCUBA diving. The estimated consumer surplus per visit to the Similan Islands using the truncated negative binomial model was US$3,233 and the economic value of the Similan Islands from SCUBA diving was estimated to be up to US$54.96 m. This study shows that, even without non-use values, coral reefs of the Similan Islands, if properly managed and maintained, will continue to have significant value to both Thai and overseas SCUBA divers, as one of the natural treasures of the world.     

Modeling Coastal and Marine Environmental Risks in Belize: the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS)

The livelihood of coastal communities is directly linked to the health of intertidal and marine ecosystems. Coastal zones and marine areas are rapidly changing and highly vulnerable to impacts from climate change, accelerating human development, and over-fishing. Quality of life and the benefits of coastal development can be greatly enhanced, and costs minimized, by projecting and comparing alternative policy outcomes before management decisions are made. This article describes the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS), an interactive decision support tool designed to assist the users and managers of Belize's system of marine management areas (MMAs) in understanding the interactions among various ecological, socioeconomic, and governance conditions in a spatially explicit manner. MIDAS can simulate and visualize the likely effects of alternative management strategies and therefore provides an important tool for evaluating potential scenarios. We developed two MIDAS modules to address specific threats in Belize –spatial risk resulting from mangrove deforestation in coastal areas and the potential effect of an oil spill off the coast of Belize. Workshops conducted in Belize indicate that diverse user groups such as fishers, tourism operators, and public environmental agencies can successfully utilize MIDAS to understand MMA outcomes, and environmental risks.     

Coastal Erosion in Ghana: Causes,Policies, and Management

Coastal erosion is a serious problem that affects the safety and livelihoods of many coastal dwellers along Ghana's coast. Despite the fact that coastal erosion is a natural phenomenon, erosion trends have been largely aggravated by human-induced factors. This study analyzed shoreline change rates for three neighbouring coastal communities in the Central region of Ghana; Elmina, Cape Coast and Moree. Two epochs were analyzed, 1974–2012 (medium-term) and 2005–2012 (short-term), using ArcGIS and Digital Shoreline Analysis System. Overall, the entire study area recorded average shoreline change rates of ?1.24 myear^?1 and ?0.85 myear^?1 in the medium-term and short-term period respectively. Less consolidated shoreline segments recorded higher erosion rates in both periods while cliffs and rocky segments experienced very little erosion or high stability. Because shorelines undergoing chronic erosion do not fully recover after short-term erosion events such as storms, facilities located close to such shorelines are threatened. Taking a proactive approach to coastal erosion management, such as coastal sand mining prevention, inter-sectoral land use management and adopting a construction setback approach may be prudent for the long-term management of the coast since this recognizes future shoreline changes and safeguards coastal landscape for other uses.     

Environmental Protection in Coastal Recreation Sites in Antalya,Turkey

This study was designed to evaluate different approaches to the protection of the environments of coastal recreation sites in and around Antalya, Turkey. Data was collected by means of a survey of coastal recreation sites and six categories were evaluated: environmental protection, infrastructure facilities, water conservation, energy conservation, waste management, and protection of the natural environment. The results indicated that there was a clear motivation among site managers or authorities for environmental protection (p < .05), infrastructure facilities (p < .001), water conservation (p < .05), energy conservation (p < .05) and the protection of the natural environment (p < .001) but waste management was not accorded a priority. The quality of coastal recreation largely relies on the attractiveness and naturalness of the environment. Although good quality site management largely depends on the awareness and willingness of individual site managers, more proactive approaches toward better environmental protection of recreation sites along the Turkish Mediterranean coast might be effective in improving their sustainable use, particularly in the absence of proper site planning.     

In Political Seas: Engaging with Political Ecology in the Ocean and Coastal Environment

The world’s oceans and coasts are awash in a sea of politics. The marine environment is increasingly busy, changing, and a site of degradation, marginalization, injustice, contestation and conflict over declining resources and occupied spaces at local to global scales. Themes of political ecology, such as power and politics, narratives and knowledge, scale and history, environmental justice and equity, are thus salient issues to understand in ocean and coastal governance and management. This subject review examines research on these themes of political ecology in the ocean and coastal environment and reflects on how the insights gained might be applied to governance and management. Political ecology provides important insights into: the influence of power in ocean management and governance processes; the manner in which narratives, knowledge, and scale are used to legitimize and shape policies and management efforts; the effects of historical trajectories on present circumstances, options, and practices; and the nature of inequities and environmental injustices that can occur in the marine environment. Moreover, ocean and coastal researchers, practitioners, and decision makers ought to engage with the political processes and injustices occurring in the ocean. Moving from critical insights to constructive engagements will ensure that political ecology helps to plant seeds of hope in the Anthropocene ocean.     

Facts,Fictions, and Failures of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe

Nearly 40 years on since its first tentative steps in North America, this article considers whether Integrated Zone Coastal Management (ICZM) in Europe has grown to maturity as a form of governance. The article summarizes the findings of recent research concerning the levels of implementation of coastal management in Europe, with particular reference to the UK experience. A research framework is used to identify the different motivations behind the social actor groups involved in coastal management. The application of this framework reveals four major findings about gaps in implementation: (1) the complexity of responsibilities at the coast continues to prevent agencies from taking a “joined-up” approach; (2) a policy vacuum is constraining implementation from national to local scales; (3) informational obstacles are significant in preventing co-ordination between science and policymakers, and between different sectors; (4) a democratic deficit is preventing implementation in the working practices of coastal stakeholders, with little opportunity in decision making for public comment or local accountability, especially offshore. The article also explores different conceptualizations of the role of coastal management and planning held across Europe, providing an analysis using the Strategic Management literature and the experience of the EU Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (1996–1999). Recent arrangements, with the availability of priming funds from the European Commission and emphasis on “pilot” and “demonstration” methods, have tended to encourage a project-based approach to ICZM that may fail to realize long-term objectives. The article seeks to present an analysis of the behaviors of scientists, academics, policymakers, and practitioners, and will be of interest to all those seeking to establish ICZM within the wider system of governance, as supported by the Commission of the European Community (2000) Communication on ICZM (COM 547). Some technical solutions are also offered from the UK experience that will be of use to coastal project officers working at national and regional levels.     

Designing a Network of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas in Hainan Island,South China

Overexploitation of reef resources and increasing coastal tourism have severely damaged the health of coral reef ecosystems around Hainan Island, South China. Only some reef sites are protected, and the effectiveness of the marine protected areas (MPA) appears inadequate. Networks of MPAs have been widely proposed as a more effective tool for reef conservation. However, little is known about the overall state of the island's coral reefs, and no guidelines exist for MPA network building in China. In this study, the information currently available on the distribution and condition of Hainan's coral reefs is comprehensively used to assess reef status, and to identify other reef areas prior to protection. An MPA network around the island is proposed in terms of monitoring, legal, and management aspects to improve the conservation effectiveness. This could also serve as a model for developing MPA networks for other coastal areas with respect to coral reef conservation.     

Governance of Shipping Emission of SOx in China's Coastal Waters: The SECA Policy,Challenges, and Directions

Emission governance of air pollutants from ships is a common challenge for the world's shipping industry. Under the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), Europe, North America, and other developed regions and countries have established strict ship Emission Control Areas (ECAs). With some of the largest ports in the world, China suffers severe air pollution from ships, posing a threat to the air quality and public health of the coastal cities. To strengthen the control and supervision over air pollutants, such as ship-emitted sulfur oxides (SO_x) in coastal areas, China issued a Sulfur Emission Control Area (SECA) policy for ships in January 2016. However, the new SECA policy lags far behind IMO's existing ECA policies, and continues to face many challenges during implementation. This paper outlines the main framework of China's ship SECA policy, analyzes the legal governance basis, discusses major potential challenges for implementing the policy, and puts forward suggestions for future governance. This research aims to promote the effectiveness of China's sulfur emission-reducing SECA policy by putting forth novel ideas for policymakers and stakeholders.     

Digging Deep: Managing Social and Policy Dimensions of Geoduck Aquaculture Conflict in Puget Sound,Washington

Shellfish aquaculture can result in conflicts among stakeholders who perceive impacts and tradeoffs regarding sense of place, aesthetic, recreational, economic, and ecological values. Pacific geoduck clams (Panopea generosa Gould 1850) are grown in intertidal plots using gear- and labor-intensive techniques that result in a high value export product. A confluence of issues has resulted in on-going social and legal tensions surrounding geoduck aquaculture in southern Puget Sound, Washington (WA), USA. Using interviews and document analysis, we explored stakeholder perspectives and policy issues related to geoduck aquaculture in southern Puget Sound. Twenty-three stakeholders were interviewed, including state agency employees, representatives of the aquaculture industry, nongovernmental organizations, landowners, a tribal member, and an academic. Nine state hearings board decisions on challenges to aquaculture permits were also analyzed. Stakeholders articulated a variety of perspectives regarding aesthetic, recreational, land-use, ecological, political, regulatory, and economic aspects of geoduck aquaculture activities. Hearings board cases addressed similar issues (aesthetic, ecological, and recreational), as well as challenges to restrictions on aquaculture. Potential strategies for managing this conflict include emphasizing best management practices, identifying and incorporating best available science, joint fact-finding approaches, and initiating and improving communication among all stakeholders.