Understanding How Policy Actors Improvise and Collaborate in the Great Barrier Reef

Complex policy frameworks guide the management of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) at multiple decision-making levels. Mounting pressure on its outstanding universal value suggests that further improvements in governance are required. There has been little examination of the role of policy actors in addressing complex governance challenges in large scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) involving multi-layered governance conflicts across diverse contexts. Framed by street level bureaucracy, pragmatic planning theory, and lessons from MPA governance, this paper examines how policy actors improvised and collaborated to advance outcomes in the GBR LSMPA. We assessed practice-focused oral histories with experienced policy actors who negotiated agreements and achieved policy outcomes in the GBR between 1985 and 2016. These policy actors were skilled improvisers, alternating between roles as democratisers, mediators, and negotiators. They used collaboration and facilitative leadership to advance policy in the face of governance problems. This enabled them to adapt policy across multi-level decision systems, address power and information imbalances, and generally deal with conflict and uncertainty. A deeper understanding of improvisation will assist governments and others to address complex challenges in LSMPAs.     

The Dependency of People on the Great Barrier Reef,Australia

Understanding how people are dependent on Large Scale Marine Protected Areas (LSMPAs) is important for understanding how people might be sensitive to changes that affect these seascapes. We review how resource dependency is conceptualized and propose that it be broadened to include cultural values such as pride in resource status, scientific heritage, appreciation of aesthetics, biodiversity, and lifestyle opportunities. We provide an overview of how local residents (n = 3,181 face-to-face surveys), commercial fishers (n = 210, telephone surveys), and tourism operators (n = 119 telephone surveys) are potentially dependent on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), a region currently experiencing significant environmental, social, and economic change. We found that commercial fishers and tourism operators were dependent not only financially on the GBR, but also because of their age, years in the industry and region, lack of education, and the number of dependents. These stakeholders lacked flexibility to secure alternative employment. All stakeholder groups, regardless of economic imperatives, were dependent on the GBR because of their cultural connections. We propose that resource dependency also provides an umbrella concept to describe the cultural services provided by an ecosystem, which can be described through place-based dependence and place-identity.     

Testing the Effects of Constraints on Climate Change–Friendly Behavior among Groups of Australian Residents

This study explores the relationship between Australian's attitudes toward climate change impacts on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). We hypothesize that general attitudes toward climate change, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predict intended and reported behavior, and that attitude negatively influences constraints on adopting ERB. The moderating effect of residential condition (urban vs. rural contexts) was tested across these hypothesized relationships. We randomly selected 200 individuals from eight regions: Five within 50 km of the GBR Coastline and three from the Statistical Metropolitan Areas in Australia. We yielded 1,623 surveys by telephone interviews. Findings confirm our hypotheses and suggest the most important predictor of intentions is perceived behavioral control. The two groups of respondents (urban vs. rural) illustrate different relationships. This study offers insight on how managers of the GBR can effectively shape residents' behavioral tendencies that minimize human impacts on the natural environment.     

Applying the Value-Belief-Norm Theory to Marine Contexts: Implications for Encouraging Pro-Environmental Behavior

Encouraging pro-environmental behavior among protected area visitors and other stakeholders has become a priority for marine resource managers. However, there exists a lack of understanding of the human dimensions of resource management regarding the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders. Using the value-belief-norm theory of environmentalism (VBN) as a framework, the purposes of this investigation were to: 1) test a model of variables that influence stakeholders' intentions to adopt pro-environmental behavior in two marine protected areas (i.e., the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary); and 2) using the relevant literature and information gleaned from the model, suggest techniques that managers can use to encourage pro-environmental intentions. Acceptable goodness-of-fit indices for both of the structural equation models (one for each protected area) provided empirical support for the usefulness of the VBN framework to guide both research in marine contexts and marine protected area management efforts to encourage stakeholders' intentions to engage in pro-environmental behavior. Specific suggestions include increasing stakeholders. knowledge about impacts via environmental education strategies, increasing their awareness of their impacts and their efficacy in mitigating those impacts (e.g., workshops), and developing interpersonal relationships among managers and stakeholders (e.g., implementation intention and follow-up strategies).     

大堡礁海域最新航法

就大堡礁海域的航法、潮流、引航情况、注意事项及通过大堡礁海域时的船舶报告制度进行了全面阐述。并将作者本人最近通过大堡礁的体会进行了汇总与介绍,为船舶安全通过大堡礁海域提供了具体详细的参考资料。     

Surveillance and Poaching on Inshore Reefs of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

The Great Barrier Reef (GBR), Australia, is managed under the GBR Marine Park Act (1975) and is seen as a shining example of marine resource management. The principle tool of management is zoning for multiple use. We examined surveillance and illegal fishing around two inshore islands (Magnetic and Orpheus) of the GBR Marine Park in 2000/2001. Both islands are near Townsville, the largest city adjacent to the GBR. Surveillance effort was low, with vessels present on only 16% of days of the year. Measurable but low levels of illegal recreational fishing occurred within no-take zones. Levels decreased with increasing surveillance effort. Thus zoning was not completely successful in protecting fish targeted by fisheries, even within the most highly enforced sections of the Park. The expansion of no-take zones in 2004 from 4.6% to 33.4% of the area of the 358,000 km2 Park represents a considerable challenge for future surveillance and enforcement.     

User perceptions about marine wilderness on Australia's Great Barrier Reef

Wilderness traditionally has been a terrestrial resource designation. This study examined user perceptions related to the existence of wilderness in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP), and raises questions about the efficacy of the GIS based Australian National Wilderness Inventory (ANWI) as a method of inventorying and analyzing wilderness settings in the absence of such perceptions. Three hundred eighty‐three users of the GBRMP were surveyed. Results indicated that over 80% of the respondents believed that wilderness existed in the park, and that it existed both above and below the surface of the water. Characteristics of wilderness related to human presence, natural features, and remoteness were found to be important to marine wilderness. Responses revealed that remoteness (physical distance) from human development may warrant less weight in the designation of marine wilderness than implied as necessary by the ANWI. We discuss implications for selecting areas as wilderness and using the wilderness designation in marine settings.     

Designing a Network of Coral Reef Marine Protected Areas in Hainan Island,South China

Overexploitation of reef resources and increasing coastal tourism have severely damaged the health of coral reef ecosystems around Hainan Island, South China. Only some reef sites are protected, and the effectiveness of the marine protected areas (MPA) appears inadequate. Networks of MPAs have been widely proposed as a more effective tool for reef conservation. However, little is known about the overall state of the island's coral reefs, and no guidelines exist for MPA network building in China. In this study, the information currently available on the distribution and condition of Hainan's coral reefs is comprehensively used to assess reef status, and to identify other reef areas prior to protection. An MPA network around the island is proposed in terms of monitoring, legal, and management aspects to improve the conservation effectiveness. This could also serve as a model for developing MPA networks for other coastal areas with respect to coral reef conservation.     

How Are Our MPAs Doing? Challenges in Assessing Global Patterns in Marine Protected Area Performance

Without effective management, protected areas are unlikely to achieve the high expectations the conservation and development sectors have for them: conserving biodiversity and alleviating poverty. Numerous marine protected area (MPA) assessment initiatives have been developed at various spatial and temporal scales, including the guidebook How is your MPA doing? These management assessments have been useful to sites to clarify and evaluate their objectives, yet efforts to examine broader regional or global patterns in MPA performance are only beginning. The authors conducted exploratory trend analyses on How is your MPA doing? indicator data collected by 24 MPAs worldwide to identify challenges and areas for future work. Wide variability across sites with regard to the indicators examined and the constructs used to measure them prevented a true meta-analysis. Managers assessed biophysical indicators more often than socioeconomic and governance constructs. Investment by the conservation community to support collecting and reporting high-quality data at the site level would enable a better understanding of the variation in MPA performance, clarify the contribution of MPAs to both biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation, and help drive better MPA performance. The absence of rigorous and consistent monitoring protocols and instruments and a platform to turn raw MPA monitoring data into actionable information is a critical but under-recognized obstacle to cross-project learning, comparative analyses, and adaptive resource management.     

Exploring Public Knowledge,Attitudes, and Perceptions of the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument

With the increase in development of large marine protected areas (LMPAs) worldwide, there have been calls from social scientists to gather better empirical information about the human dimensions of LMPAs. Of the social research done on LMPAs to date, most has focused on the perceptions of stakeholders closely connected to their implementation, and little research has explored the general public's response. This paper presents the results of a phone survey conducted in the US territories of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands to assess residents' knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument—a LMPA designated offshore in 2009. The survey was administered in 2012 to 500 randomly-selected residents from each territory. Findings suggest: (1) public awareness of the Monument prior to the survey was low; (2) residents generally supported designation of the Monument; (3) most residents did not believe that the Monument would affect them or their community; and (4) knowledge and perceptions of the Monument varied between fishing and non-fishing households. This research illustrates that awareness and views differ between stakeholders and those of the general public, which should be used to inform social research on LMPAs and outreach for LMPA managers.     

Sanctuary Advisory Councils: Involving the Public in the National Marine Sanctuary Program

Scientists work with marine protected area (MPA) managers to design MPAs that will protect marine resources, maintain biodiversity, promote tourism, and enhance biological production. It has become increasingly clear that scientific input is not the only requisite for ensuring establishment of these areas. Understanding the political institutions and management systems that govern these areas is as important for establishing MPAs as understanding the natural resources in the area. Recent studies have found that the success of establishing and managing MPAs can be attributed to increased public participation in the management process. This article looks at the public's involvement in the management of the U.S. equivalent of MPAs, the National Marine Sanctuaries. In particular, Sanctuary Advisory Councils are examined as one mechanism through which the public can participate in the management of marine sanctuaries. The article concludes with comments on the evolving role of these councils in marine resource management.     

Understanding Recreational Boater Attitudes to Zoning in a Proposed Marine Protected Area

Although the success of marine protected areas (MPAs) and associated zoning schemes is largely dependent on stakeholder acceptance and support, there have been relatively few studies examining the response of recreational stakeholders to MPA proposals. This study investigates the response of recreational boaters to a proposed MPA in British Columbia, Canada. Using a structured questionnaire (n = 543) and a focus group (n = 6), the research examines the level of support for the concept of marine zoning and identifies key factors influencing support or opposition. Results indicate that a small majority of recreational boaters support the concept of marine zoning, but that there are areas of concern that ought to be addressed as MPA implementation proceeds. Support for zoning was strongly related to perceived benefits, particularly environmental benefits. Furthermore, perceived benefits overall were found to outweigh concerns as determinants of recreational boater support for zoning. Major dimensions of opposition included perceptions of over-regulation, loss of access for boating, and mistrust of the government. A suggestion is that such concerns may be mitigated through focused communication and meaningful involvement of boaters in the zoning process.     

Conceptualizing Social Outcomes of Large Marine Protected Areas

There has been an assumption that because many large marine protected areas (LMPAs) are designated in areas with relatively few direct uses, they therefore have few stakeholders and negligible social outcomes. This article challenges this assumption with diverse examples of social outcomes that are distinctive in LMPAs. We define social outcomes as inclusive of both social change processes and social impacts, where “social” includes all perceptual or material human dimensions. We draw on five in-depth case studies to report social outcomes resulting from proposed or designated LMPAs in Bermuda, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), Kiribati, Palau, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands & Guam. We conclude: (1) social outcomes arise even in remote LMPAs; (2) LMPA efforts generate social outcomes at all stages of development; (3) LMPAs have the potential to produce outcomes at a higher level of social organization, which can change the scope and type of affected populations and, in some cases, the nature and stakes of the outcomes themselves; (4) the potential for LMPAs to impart distinctive social outcomes results from their unique geographies and/or intersection with high-level politics and policy processes; and (5) social outcomes of LMPAs may emerge in the form of social change processes and/or social impacts.     

The Causal Effects of Place Attachment and Tourism Development on Coastal Residents' Environmentally Responsible Behavior

Coastal areas are generally known as high-usage areas for residential, recreational, and tourism purposes. Coastal residents, as well as local visitors, therefore, can play an important role in protecting coastal resources. The purpose of this study was to identify important factors that could promote residents' environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The two concepts, place attachment and attitudes toward tourism development (ATTD), were included to verify causal relationships of ERB. For data analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) were conducted. Study results showed that place identity fully mediated the relationship between place dependence and ERB. With respect to the two dimensions of ATTD, there was a positive relationship between perceived benefits and ERB, while perceived concerns mediated this relationship. To promote ERB, the study emphasized the importance of developing place identity by providing diverse economical, socio-cultural, and recreational coastal benefits. In addition, involving those residents, who are positively and negatively impacted by tourism development, in the process of sustainable tourism development will develop more effective sustainable development strategies by reflecting local residents' opinions and preferences.     

Assessment criteria for the sustainable competitive advantage of the national merchant fleet from a resource-based view

To determine the competitive advantage of the national merchant fleet, based on the resource-based view, we collect competitive advantage assessment factors from literature, and use the analytic hierarchy process methodology to compare the importance of assessment dimensions and variables. The article's conclusions include a recommendation that the government review the current allocation of resources and implement measures to reinforce the national merchant fleet. This study's findings can be summarized as follows: (1) Criteria dimensions are ranked in the order of competitive strength, organizational capability, tangible assets, and intangible assets. (2) Criteria variables can be ranked in the order of freight revenue, cargo loading ratio, accuracy of shipping schedule, dead weight tonnage, number of vessels, standard of customer service, reputation of shipping company, cargo transportation volume, gross tonnage, sailing frequency, shipping knowledge, fleet specialization, number of crewmen, and fleet technological level. (3) The government should review existing maritime regulations and measures in order to formulate specific and transparent policies, and seek to adopt optimal alternatives from other countries concerning such issues as tonnage tax, bilateral income tax reduction or exemption agreements, second-registration mechanisms and shipbuilding basis, etc.     

Papahānaumokuākea: Integrating Culture in the Design and Management of one of the World's Largest Marine Protected Areas

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is one of the world's largest marine protected areas and was designated the first mixed conservation site in the United States due to its natural and cultural importance. It is also the world's first cultural seascape, being recognized for its continuing connections to indigenous people. As the westernmost place in the Hawaiian universe, many believe these islands and seas are the pathway that Native Hawaiians travel after death, returning to pō (night; realm of the gods). This intimate kinship has profound implications for contemporary management. Current management emphasizes integration of science, policy, cultural knowledge, traditions, and practices to create successful management strategies appropriate for both natural and cultural resources. This management is based on Native Hawaiian values and practices that incorporate observation and understanding of the natural world, indigenous principles and philosophies, cultural norms, community relationships, and unique epistemologies deeply imbedded in and formed by relationships of people with place. A cornerstone of this effort has been the direct involvement of cultural practitioners in policy, management, education, and research. This biocultural approach has led to more effective management of the monument and serves as a model for conservation around the world.     

Effective Public Participation is Fundamental for Marine Conservation—Lessons from a Large-Scale MPA

The Representative Areas Program (RAP) was, at the time, the most comprehensive process of community involvement and participatory planning for any environmental issue in Australia. The RAP was a key component of the widely acclaimed rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and although completed in 2003, many lessons learned are still relevant today. This paper provides an analysis of the comprehensive public participation program that significantly influenced the final planning outcome. It provides insights into a fundamental component of effective marine planning, assessing what worked well and what did not in terms of public engagement. Some aspects of the public participation program were innovative, and some were more effective than others. The outcome was one-third of the Marine Park was declared as highly protected no-take zones in 2004, with the remainder of the park also zoned to provide lower levels of protection. The methods used to engage the public and the 25 lessons discussed in this paper should be of interest for practitioners, policy makers and academics elsewhere aiming for “good practice” approaches to achieve environmental conservation.     

Vulnerability of Port and Harbor Communities to Earthquake and Tsunami Hazards: The Use of GIS in Community Hazard Planning

Earthquakes and tsunamis pose significant threats to Pacific Northwest coastal port and harbor communities. Developing holistic mitigation and preparedness strategies to reduce the potential for loss of life and property damage requires community-wide vulnerability assessments that transcend traditional site-specific analyses. The ability of a geographic information system (GIS) to integrate natural, socioeconomic, and hazards information makes it an ideal assessment tool to support community hazard planning efforts. This article summarizes how GIS was used to assess the vulnerability of an Oregon port and harbor community to earthquake and tsunami hazards, as part of a larger risk-reduction planning initiative. The primary purposes of the GIS were to highlight community vulnerability issues and to identify areas that both are susceptible to hazards and contain valued port and harbor community resources. Results of the GIS analyses can help decision makers with limited mitigation resources set priorities for increasing community resiliency to natural hazards.     

Competing Visions for Marine Tenure and Co-Management: Genesis of a Marine Management Area System in Chile

Chile has been attempting to establish a Management Area (MA) system that melds the use of marine protected areas with marine tenure. The process has brought to the fore the competing interests of various user groups: artisanal fishermen, marine science professionals, government managers, tourist developers, and the Navy. We explore the core relationships among fishermen and the ecologists and biologists whose work is essential for establishing and maintaining a MA. The MA system's creation and implementation raise the key question of whether a marine tenure system can work under the conditions imposed by the Chilean government. There is a need to recognize and reconcile contradictions in a government management model that strives simultaneously to be a conservation zone and a financially profitable co-management zone. This article examines the MA management system's fault lines in the context of Chile's political economy, and the intimate interaction of management with fishermen's cultural survival strategies.