Comparing operator and users costs of light rail, heavy rail and bus rapid transit over a radial public transport network

A model to compare three alternative forms of public transport - light rail, heavy rail and bus rapid transit - is developed for an urban network with radial lines emanating from the borders to the city centre. The theoretical framework assumes an operation aimed at minimising the total cost associated with public transport service provision, which encompasses both operator and users costs. The decision variables are the number of lines (network density) and the frequency per period for each mode. This approach has no prejudices a priori in respect of whether a specified delivery scenario is aligned with existing modal reputation. Rather, we establish the conditions under which a specific transit mode should be preferred to another in terms of the operator (supply) and user (demand) side offerings. The model is applied using data from Australian cities, suggesting that in most of the scenarios analysed a high standard bus service is the most cost-effective mode, because it provides lower operator costs (infrastructure, rolling stock and operating cost), access time costs (due to a larger number of lines) and waiting time cost (due to larger frequencies of operation). A rail mode, such as light rail or heavy rail, may have a lower total cost only if it is able to run faster than bus rapid transit, and the difference in speed is enough to outweigh the bus advantage on operator cost and access and waiting times.     

Securing public values in public transport projects: Four Dutch cases on innovation

Public transport projects, like its operations, most often have a substantial dependence on public funding. The rationale behind the public contribution is that governments on different levels want to secure certain public values by supporting public transport, e.g., mobility, accessibility, sustainability, social inclusion. These are all public values that public transport, projects and operations are expected to support. Evaluations show that the outcomes of the projects are often different than expected. The goal of the research described here was to understand what happens to the public values during the process of project realisation. Four Dutch projects were researched: ZuidTangent (a bus rapid transit project near Schiphol); ParkShuttle (a people mover near Rotterdam); Phileas (guided bus rapid transit near Eindhoven); and RandstadRail (a light rail conversion near The Hague). All the projects were initiated with innovation as one of the key elements/values. Moving away from the traditional ante-post analysis, we saw patterns in the way in which public values shift during the project. First, the projects under study show how too much focus on innovation can harm the project. Second, we see crowding out of values; high ambitions of key values during the early phases of the project lead to neglect of values which were not key to the project. Third, although more innovation was a key reason to introduce competition in the governance of Dutch public transport, it became apparent that introducing competition has complicated execution of these innovative projects significantly.     

Optimal economic interventions in scheduled public transport

This chapter analyses appropriate regulatory instruments for public transport markets under monopoly and competition, respectively. For the monopoly case, the operator chooses too low supply, compared to welfare optimum. In contrast, for the competition case the operators choose too high supply, at least for the competition model that we have considered most appropriate. It is found that under monopoly a subsidy should be applied, while under competition taxation should be applied.     

Impact of regulation on the performances of long-distance transport services: A comparison of the different approaches in Sweden and Norway

Despite the many socio-economic similarities between Sweden and Norway, differences in jurisdiction, organisation, cooperation, and financing of long-distance passenger train and coach services have led to the development of four distinctively different ways of serving the markets. This paper describes how the train and coach markets have developed in the two countries, with emphasis on regulatory and industrial structure and a couple of performance variables.Looking at passenger rail, both countries separated infrastructure from operation over a decade ago. However, while Norwegian rail is characterised by an almost monopoly supplier, rail services in Sweden are partly decentralised to the responsibility of county authorities and are widely subjected to competitive tendering. The rest of the network is about to be opened up for on-the-track competition. Swedish Rail (SJ) has spent the last decades consolidating its core business (passenger rail) and sold out its other businesses. In contrast, the Norwegian state rail (NSB) has expanded its business to become a major bus operator and property owner, with extensions also into the Swedish market.The coach industry was more recently deregulated in both countries. The Swedish coach market is dominated by privately owned companies operating services to and from Stockholm. In Norway, state-owned NSB is a major coach operator on medium distance routes, and is also the largest partner of Nor-Way Bussekspress which totally dominates long-distance coach services. Further, the Norwegian coach market is characterised by cross-ownership and cooperation which has enabled an extensive route network which covers most of Norway.We find distinct differences in achievements in the two modes and in the two countries. Swedish rail services have succeeded in winning market shares and in renewing and developing both infrastructure and service levels to a greater extent than the Norwegian model. On the other hand, the Norwegian coach market seems to be more developed and efficient compared to its Swedish counterpart.The paper concludes with a discussion on the possible links between the different approaches and the performance observed, with the aim to stimulate further and more detailed research on some important issues.     

Workshop 2: Bus rapid transit as part of enhanced service provision

Workshop 2 focused on the role of BRT as part of enhanced public transport service provision. Discussion topics included case studies around the world; improved performance and operations; and better contracts, institutional settings and enhanced policies. BRT was identified as a vital component of modern public transport systems due to its ability to provide high performance and rapid implementation at a lower cost than comparable rail transit. The participants concluded that on top of improving trunk transit corridors, it is important to look to the first and last kilometers and the connections among transport modes. In addition, it is important to consider all dimensions, not just the technical issues. The workshop identified the desirable ingredients for BRT success, created a table of bus based options for different applications and a list of research topics.     

Passenger railway reform in the last 20 years - European experience reconsidered

It is about 20 years since the rail reform process in Europe began with the separation of infrastructure from operations in Sweden. This paper reviews the entire process, examining the objectives of reform, the different models adopted, and the key elements of separation of infrastructure from operations, competition both through open access and franchising and regulation and infrastructure charging. It is concluded that separation of infrastructure from operations involves costs, but is the most effective way of achieving within mode competition. Where operations do not greatly overlap and open access passenger and freight are unimportant, leasing infrastructure to passenger franchisees may be effective, but the model of vertical integration as separate subsidiaries within a holding company structure makes it difficult to ensure a level playing field for new entrants and is only effective where the vertically integrated operator remains dominant.     

On the beaten track: a view of US West-Coast container port competition

More than a century ago far-sighted railroad builders and steamship operators were seeking the shortest intermodal itineraries between the eastern United States and the Orient. A combination of locational fact and the factual outcomes of 19th century railroad building left Chicago roughly equidistant in railway mileage from what became the four great US West-Coast port complexes in the Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland and Seattle regions. Their nearly equivalent rail access to Chicago and points east has renewed significance in the container era.

This paper concerns the efforts of US Pacific seaboard ports to stay 'on the beaten track' with respect to container shipments between Asia and the eastern United States. The West-Coast ports are transit points dividing the transcontinental and transoceanic segments of long intercontinental journeys. From origins to destinations there are, in fact, many possibly feasible itineraries, including all-water routes.

The West-Coast ports have considerable control over their own site improvements. On the other hand, with respect to transiting container traffic, the ports may influence, but are unlikely to control, their own situations. Since the major container port facilities are very often on long-term lease to large intermodal carriers, the latter are making the important shipping and routeing decisions. The carriers tend in fact to set the tone and level of port competition.

What is the nature of the competition between container ports? Is it a figment of the publicist's imagination and perpetuated by irrelevant statistical boasting? Is it perhaps something forced on the ports by carriers eager to play one port off against another in a 'lowest bid' game? At what geographical scale might port competition be most useful or, maybe, least wasteful?     

European rail reform and passenger services - the next steps

Whilst the emphasis of European Union rail legislation to date has been on freight, measures such as separation of infrastructure from operations, infrastructure charging regimes and regulation have major implications for the passenger sector. But implementation of these measures in many countries has been inadequate. Crucial to overcoming these problems is the establishment of strong independent regulators in all member states. There is currently no requirement for competition in the passenger sector except for international services, but there is experience both of open access for commercial services and of competitive franchising. However, even where permitted open access competition has been very limited and there is evidence that undesirable cream skimming may be a problem. Experience of franchising has generally been positive, but in some cases it has failed to drive down costs. It is concluded that a combination of more sensible risk sharing, a determination not to renegotiate, longer franchises and limited open access competition where justified by benefits is likely to be the best way forward.     

Impact of Transmilenio on density,land use,and land value in Bogotá

While urban sprawl has been the general growth pattern in most developing cities worldwide, the city of Bogotá has undergone a process of densification in specific areas in the past decade. Using a differences-in-differences methodology, we have shown that the bus rapid transit (BRT) network, Transmilenio, built in this period is one of the variables that account for this higher density. Areas served by Transmilenio, especially those in the periphery that have been provided with feeder bus routes, have a higher growth than zones without access to this system. Using a similar methodology for assessing the growth of newly built areas, we have not found a clear relation between the BRT and recent evolution of residential, commercial, or work areas. However, recent scientific literature confirms an impact of the BRT on land value.     

Airline network competition: Full-service airlines, low-cost airlines and long-haul markets

The paper discusses airline network competition. Low-cost airlines and conventional airlines have distinctly different strategies and network types. This determines their ability to compete with other airlines in specific markets. The paper discusses the lack of competition between conventional airlines in local markets, and sees why low-cost airlines are the primary source of competition in such markets. Conventional airlines are relatively strong on long-haul markets, using their networks to keep costs per seat relatively low. Charter airlines show that a long-haul low-cost strategy is feasible For scheduled low-cost airlines, this may be more difficult, but this does not automatically mean that low-cost airlines cannot enter thick long-haul markets.     

Engaging the paratransit sector in Cape Town on public transport reform: Progress,process and risks

The South African government in 2006 initiated an urban public transport reform programme reliant on the introduction of new bus rapid transit (BRT) systems. Affected paratransit operators can opt to be incorporated in these systems by forming new operating companies, but must withdraw their existing services from proposed routes. Cape Town's first phase of BRT operations came online in 2011, and operator engagement has focussed on this phase. The attitudes within this city's paratransit sector in relation to future phases, and to the broader reform policy, remain largely untested. In view of this sector's past resistance to government-led proposals, and the current phase avoiding areas with the highest concentrations of operators, the current engagement process's outcomes may not be adequate indicators of future prospects.     

组态式船舶电力推进系统仿真软件设计与实现

针对船舶电力推进系统方案论证效率低、成本高等问题,开发了一款组态式船舶电力推进系统仿真软件。对船舶电力推进系统进行结构划分,并建立了系统的数学模型和仿真模型,并封装形成模型库。使用Matlab/GUI开发界面层,用M语言对Simulink模型进行调用与控制。使用SQL Server 2008创建数据库,实现数据的存取和管理功能。基于该软件对某船舶电力推进系统设计方案进行组态式的图形化建模,并设计了典型工况的仿真实验。结果表明,仿真模型较好预报了实船运行工况。由此可见,该软件可有效验证船舶电力推进系统设计方案。     

The conflict between competition policy and the wider role of the local bus industry in Britain

Since the Transport Act of 1985, the local bus industry in Britain (outside London and Northern Ireland) has been subject to deregulation, removing previous restrictions on routes, service levels and fares. This also marked a reversal of the previous emphasis on co-ordination of services provided by different operators, and introduced competition law as applying to other industries to the local bus sector. This has been in conflict with other policy objectives aimed at stimulating greater use of public transport, such as harmonisation of ticketing systems. The underlying issues are examined, and recent changes in policy. The Local Transport Act of 2008 offers an opportunity to resolve some of these problems, and its application in Oxford is discussed as the first substantial example to date. However, a strong conflict remains between the role of competition agencies and other aspects of policy.     

Structure, conduct and performance on the major liner shipping routes 1

Market concentration on the major container shipping routes has the potential to reduce contestability, impede effective competition and, as a consequence, inhibit the positive relationship between trade and economic growth. This development could also hamper the ability of economic regions to realize their respective competitive and comparative advantages. Within this context, the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) framework is used to analyse liner shipping dynamics in the transpacific, Europe-Far East and transatlantic trade routes. The analysis finds no conclusive evidence that either the increased concentration of slot capacity or the attempts by shipping lines to boost potential slot capacity (mainly through collaborative arrangements) lead to improved financial performance. The paper concludes that, despite high and increasing concentration among carriers on each of the trade routes analysed, these markets remain contestable.     

基于轨道交通的公交一体化衔接研究

在总结东京、新加坡、香港、深圳、广州等国内外城市轨道交通一体化衔接经验的基础上,评价分析重庆主城区轨道交通车站交通衔接现状,指出重庆市主城区目前轨道交通车站一体化交通衔接方面存在的问题,给出了不同类型轨道交通车站交通一体化衔接导则和规划指引。     

城市轨道交通线网规划可实施性探讨

在对城市轨道交通线网规划概述的基础上,研究了其可实施性的一些制约因素,并以武汉和昆明的线网规划为例,分析了线网规划可实施性的重要性,提出了树立绿色综合交通规划和大轨道交通网络系统的理念、加强现场踏勘和收集与分析基础资料、建立城市建设资料以及规划成果集中管理和共享机制的结论和建议。     

A journey from adversary to partnership bus reform in NSW

This paper continues to debate the importance of understanding in the NSW Bus reform process of the relationship between central agencies, service providers, the academic community, key consultants and contractors within the setting of the transport service organisation framework. Sydney is a modern city with heavy rail, light-rail, monorail and an extensive Harbour, with bus services owned by Government as well as private interests. The paper addresses the case for reforms, the approach taken, competition policy, the subsequent development of partnerships, performance of the regulator, passenger benefits, growth and the differences between Metropolitan/Outer Metropolitan and Regional and Rural bus services.     

Structure,conduct and performance on the major liner shipping routes 1

Market concentration on the major container shipping routes has the potential to reduce contestability, impede effective competition and, as a consequence, inhibit the positive relationship between trade and economic growth. This development could also hamper the ability of economic regions to realize their respective competitive and comparative advantages. Within this context, the structure-conduct-performance (SCP) framework is used to analyse liner shipping dynamics in the transpacific, Europe–Far East and transatlantic trade routes. The analysis finds no conclusive evidence that either the increased concentration of slot capacity or the attempts by shipping lines to boost potential slot capacity (mainly through collaborative arrangements) lead to improved financial performance. The paper concludes that, despite high and increasing concentration among carriers on each of the trade routes analysed, these markets remain contestable.     

Waiting time and the role and value of information in scheduled transport

A new logit-based model for assigning public transit passengers to transit lines or routes is proposed. The model is based on the realistic assumption that once passengers arrive at stops, they can obtain information regarding the specific departure times. Furthermore, it takes into account that passengers are heterogeneous and hence, the choice made by a ‘representative’ passenger appears to be stochastic. The model is evaluated by means of simulations.     

The role for rail in port-based container freight flows in Britain

As supply chains become increasingly global and companies seek greater efficiencies, the importance of good, reliable land-based transport linkages to/from ports increases. This poses particular problems for the UK, with its high dependency on imported goods and congested ports and inland routes. It is conservatively estimated that container volumes through British ports will double over the next 20 years, adding to the existing problems. This paper investigates the potential for rail to become better integrated into port-based container flows, so as to increase its share of this market and contribute to a more sustainable mode split. It identifies the trends in container traffic through UK ports, establishes the role of rail within this market, and assesses the opportunities and threats facing rail in the future. The analysis combines published statistics and other information relating to container traffic and original research on the nature of the rail freight market, examining recent trends and future prospects. The paper concludes that this is an important market for rail, with considerable growth potential but to realize this it is important that a number of constraints are overcome, otherwise the long-term prospects for this rail market will be compromised.