European rail reform and passenger services - the next steps

Whilst the emphasis of European Union rail legislation to date has been on freight, measures such as separation of infrastructure from operations, infrastructure charging regimes and regulation have major implications for the passenger sector. But implementation of these measures in many countries has been inadequate. Crucial to overcoming these problems is the establishment of strong independent regulators in all member states. There is currently no requirement for competition in the passenger sector except for international services, but there is experience both of open access for commercial services and of competitive franchising. However, even where permitted open access competition has been very limited and there is evidence that undesirable cream skimming may be a problem. Experience of franchising has generally been positive, but in some cases it has failed to drive down costs. It is concluded that a combination of more sensible risk sharing, a determination not to renegotiate, longer franchises and limited open access competition where justified by benefits is likely to be the best way forward.     

The impact of transitional changes of maritime passenger transport on Croatian tourism development

At the beginning of the nineties, Croatia witnessed the collapse of communism, arrival of democracy, a war of national survival and the launch of the transition. Extraordinarily under these circumstances, tourism has become one of the most propulsive economic activities in Croatia. To preserve this prosperous industry, one must consider the variables that affect Croatian tourism. Research shows that maritime passenger transport has a substantial influence upon seashore tourism improvement. This mode not only represents a sizable share of international tourism transport, but often provides the only access to island tourism destinations. This paper provides an analysis of the impact of the transitional changes of maritime passenger transport on Croatian tourism development. Following a brief examination of the functions of maritime transport within tourism, the paper focuses on: composition of Croatian fleets, potential opportunities in local and international markets, and structural reforms required to increase the quality of Croatian maritime passenger services. Commercialization programmes are significantly important as Croatia prepares to enter the EU, and open up its markets to free competition.     

The impact of transitional changes of maritime passenger transport on Croatian tourism development

At the beginning of the nineties, Croatia witnessed the collapse of communism, arrival of democracy, a war of national survival and the launch of the transition. Extraordinarily under these circumstances, tourism has become one of the most propulsive economic activities in Croatia. To preserve this prosperous industry, one must consider the variables that affect Croatian tourism. Research shows that maritime passenger transport has a substantial influence upon seashore tourism improvement. This mode not only represents a sizable share of international tourism transport, but often provides the only access to island tourism destinations. This paper provides an analysis of the impact of the transitional changes of maritime passenger transport on Croatian tourism development. Following a brief examination of the functions of maritime transport within tourism, the paper focuses on: composition of Croatian fleets, potential opportunities in local and international markets, and structural reforms required to increase the quality of Croatian maritime passenger services. Commercialization programmes are significantly important as Croatia prepares to enter the EU, and open up its markets to free competition.     

Changes in transaction costs over time - The case of franchised train operating firms in Britain

The significant effects of competition, franchising and vertical separation of rail infrastructure from train operation on the level of transaction costs are often anecdotally described in the literature. Although it has been shown that franchising has an effect on total costs, there is very little empirical evidence on whether franchising has an impact on the level of transaction costs over time. One reason for this is, of course, the limited systematic work on the measurement of transaction costs in railways. This paper builds on recent work that applied a top-down approach to transaction cost measurement to identify the size of the transaction sector within rail firms in different EU countries. In cross-country comparison particularly, British train operators turned out to be associated with high levels of transaction costs. However, since the previous work focused on a single fiscal year it did not show any longitudinal effects within one institutional environment or country. Therefore, this paper focuses on British franchised passenger train operating firms and aims to reveal how the transaction sector within those firms has changed over the period 1996/1997-2007/2008 and whether the franchise contract details, such as contract length or the franchising regime, matter. It also aims to estimate the resulting changes in the level of transaction costs and their share in total operating costs for the first time.     

A journey from adversary to partnership bus reform in NSW

This paper continues to debate the importance of understanding in the NSW Bus reform process of the relationship between central agencies, service providers, the academic community, key consultants and contractors within the setting of the transport service organisation framework. Sydney is a modern city with heavy rail, light-rail, monorail and an extensive Harbour, with bus services owned by Government as well as private interests. The paper addresses the case for reforms, the approach taken, competition policy, the subsequent development of partnerships, performance of the regulator, passenger benefits, growth and the differences between Metropolitan/Outer Metropolitan and Regional and Rural bus services.     

客滚船特大火灾险情成功处置的启示和思考

文中通过分析一起客滚船火灾险情的救助过程,总结了险情成功处置的经验以及带来的启示,提出了进一步加强搜救能力建设的几点建议,旨在指导海上搜救中心加强搜救能力建设,以进一步提高海上搜救工作效能。     

An assessment of port reform in Argentina: outcomes and challenges ahead

During the 1990s Argentina engaged in a process of restructuring and deregulation of its ports. The main objective of the reform was to increase efficiency and service quality and to reduce the size and role of the public sector in ports. Overall, it was expected to allow the transport sector to adjust its capacity to demand changes and to facilitate international trade while contributing to the reduction of the fiscal burden of this sector. This paper shows that the reform caused significant efficiency gains, allowing a 50% drop in container terminal handling price within five years in the most important ports. The paper also identifies outstanding issues that could impact the long-run sustainability of the gains achieved. Among these issues, emphasis is given to recent horizontal and vertical mergers in the Port of Buenos Aires and their consequences in terms of actual competition and access regulation.     

An assessment of port reform in Argentina: outcomes and challenges ahead

During the 1990s Argentina engaged in a process of restructuring and deregulation of its ports. The main objective of the reform was to increase efficiency and service quality and to reduce the size and role of the public sector in ports. Overall, it was expected to allow the transport sector to adjust its capacity to demand changes and to facilitate international trade while contributing to the reduction of the fiscal burden of this sector. This paper shows that the reform caused significant efficiency gains, allowing a 50% drop in container terminal handling price within five years in the most important ports. The paper also identifies outstanding issues that could impact the long-run sustainability of the gains achieved. Among these issues, emphasis is given to recent horizontal and vertical mergers in the Port of Buenos Aires and their consequences in terms of actual competition and access regulation.     

Engaging paratransit on public transport reform initiatives in South Africa: A critique of policy and an investigation of appropriate engagement approaches

A number of South African cities are planning integrated public transport networks that rely on the introduction of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), in line with similar trends to expand or upgrade public transport services in emerging and industrialised urban transport markets around the globe. In addition, BRT in South Africa is being used as a mechanism to drive reform in the dominant yet highly fragmented paratransit sector, inspired by similar processes particularly in Latin American cities such as Bogotá, Mexico City, and Santiago de Chile. Thousands of paratransit operators would have to formalise their businesses, or merge into new or existing operator entities in order to participate in the new systems. There is, however, an absence of accessible business plans and regulatory regime proposals around which paratransit can be engaged to convince it to alter its current modus operandi. A large number of national, regional and local paratransit groupings have furthermore indicated their resistance to the planned networks on the grounds of insufficient consultation, an unclear future role in the system and employee redundancies. Should this deadlock not be resolved, it seems unlikely that the planned networks will be realised in the proposed timeframes, if indeed at all. This paper investigates the South African passenger transport policy framework that has contributed to the current deadlock, and explores appropriate approaches to engaging paratransit operators on a system of contracting, competition and ownership that recognises the sector’s aspirations and fragmented nature, yet contributes towards improved passenger transport services. It is the authors’ view that paratransit reform is a highly context-specific process, even at the sub-city level, and that this could prevent transferring paratransit regulatory and integration approaches across countries, and even cities in the same country, without adaptation to local conditions.     

Results so far and prospects of Kazakhstan passenger rail franchising

From 1991 till 2004 passenger rail transportation in Kazakhstan was organized by a public company without financial contribution from the state budget. As in any post-Soviet country losses from passenger sector in the integrated rail company were covered at the expense of the freight transportations. From 2005 the Government is trying to introduce competition in passenger rail industry by competitive tendering rights to operate on particular route and providing subsidies.This paper reviews the Kazakhstan passenger rail franchising policy from statement and implementation with analysis of results so far. To get sense about the current policy’s perception survey among managers of the government bodies and railway companies had been performed. It indicates respondents’ opinion about main concerns and suggestions for improvement in passenger rail industry. According to provided analysis there are opportunities for improvements in operation of public and private companies as well as in the Government policy.     

Impact of regulation on the performances of long-distance transport services: A comparison of the different approaches in Sweden and Norway

Despite the many socio-economic similarities between Sweden and Norway, differences in jurisdiction, organisation, cooperation, and financing of long-distance passenger train and coach services have led to the development of four distinctively different ways of serving the markets. This paper describes how the train and coach markets have developed in the two countries, with emphasis on regulatory and industrial structure and a couple of performance variables.Looking at passenger rail, both countries separated infrastructure from operation over a decade ago. However, while Norwegian rail is characterised by an almost monopoly supplier, rail services in Sweden are partly decentralised to the responsibility of county authorities and are widely subjected to competitive tendering. The rest of the network is about to be opened up for on-the-track competition. Swedish Rail (SJ) has spent the last decades consolidating its core business (passenger rail) and sold out its other businesses. In contrast, the Norwegian state rail (NSB) has expanded its business to become a major bus operator and property owner, with extensions also into the Swedish market.The coach industry was more recently deregulated in both countries. The Swedish coach market is dominated by privately owned companies operating services to and from Stockholm. In Norway, state-owned NSB is a major coach operator on medium distance routes, and is also the largest partner of Nor-Way Bussekspress which totally dominates long-distance coach services. Further, the Norwegian coach market is characterised by cross-ownership and cooperation which has enabled an extensive route network which covers most of Norway.We find distinct differences in achievements in the two modes and in the two countries. Swedish rail services have succeeded in winning market shares and in renewing and developing both infrastructure and service levels to a greater extent than the Norwegian model. On the other hand, the Norwegian coach market seems to be more developed and efficient compared to its Swedish counterpart.The paper concludes with a discussion on the possible links between the different approaches and the performance observed, with the aim to stimulate further and more detailed research on some important issues.     

The dynamics of port reform: different contexts,similar strategies

Research into port reform in Taiwan and Australia indicates that reform was undertaken in different contexts while committed and adopting similar strategies. Reform in both countries has been consistent with paradigmatic shifts towards market orientation, and within this context, privatisation was considered the preferred option. In both Taiwan and Australia, however, governments, reluctant to relinquish control over their ports, opted for corporatisation models. This article discusses the dynamics and drivers of reform and examines the outcome of these strategies. Both countries commenced port reform with deregulation of dock labour employment and introduced enterprise-based employment replacing the labour pool system. Privatisation of stevedoring operations was introduced at the same time in Taiwan. In the second reform phase, Taiwan amalgamated the four major commercial ports under a single state-owned port company in March 2012, with the objective of reducing inter-port competition and creating a central port planning mechanism. Australian ports, on the other hand, have undergone restructuring with the implementation of corporatisation, privatisation and commercialisation strategies since 1990s. Reform strategies in both countries display some similarities, e.g. rationalisation strategies in both Taiwan and Tasmanian ports, but also display some distinct dissimilarities with the increasing move to privatisation in Australia, e.g. the sale of South Australian ports and in 2010 the sale of the port of Brisbane.     

大型沉井基础的防冲护底试验研究

大型沉井基础的冲刷防护是较复杂的工程问题,既要求防护材料的块径不能过小以确保安全度汛,又不能因其块径过大而影响着床时沉井刃脚的下切。采用物理模型,通过试验对护底碎石的块径、级配及起动、安全度汛和着床阶段的沉井防护工程的稳定性进行研究,得出大型沉井基础在安全度汛和着床两种阶段既能保持稳定又较为经济的护底工程的范围和碎石级配。既能满足施工需要,又使整体预防护工程达到总体要求。     

基于BP神经网络的客滚船营运风险评估

随着客滚船运输行业的兴起,客滚船的营运安全日益受到各方面的关注。文中利用BP神经网络评价方法,由人、船、环境、管理四要素所构成的客滚船营运风险进行评估,最终确定某客滚船具体航次的营运风险。经过验证,基于BP神经网络客滚船营运风险评估方法与实际相符,为客滚船风险评估提供一条新的途径。     

Competition in transit markets

Despite regulatory reforms in a number of countries, competition in transit markets is still relatively rare. Moreover, where it does occur it tends to be small group in nature and the outcomes are difficult to predict. In this paper, simulation models of competition in inter-urban rail markets and urban bus markets are developed and applied in studies of Great Britain and Sweden. It is found that on busy routes head-on competition is commercially feasible (although for rail this assumes low access charges) but is not socially desirable. For routes with thin demand (or high access costs), competition may be limited to cream skimming. In most competed cases, there appears to be a tendency for the provision of too much service, at too high price and (at least for bus) at too low quality. Rather than classical Bertrand-Cournot oligopoly models, transit markets may be best described by models of oligopolistic competition based on horizontal product differentiation.     

On the time for the abandonment of flooded passenger ships due to collision damages

The time dependency of the survivability of passenger ships in flooding accidents leading to ship’s loss is shown to be confined within short times after the flooding initiation. RoRo ferry and cruise type ships demonstrate similar behaviour, though vessel types differ with respect to the subdivision and the flooding process. The presented research is based on numerical simulations of the flooding of two sample passenger ships in collision damages and the estimation of the probability to capsize. The systematic fast character of capsize events is shown to be primarily a consequence of the extent of hull breaches. The IMO regulatory concept for orderly abandonment of damaged passenger ships, in addition to the safe return to port regulatory provisions, are discussed in view of the present results. The timely onboard damage identification by ship’s master and the enhancement of the SOLAS survivability requirements for passenger ships appear to be the most effective operational and design measures leading to improved survivability of the ship and to enhanced safety of people onboard.     

清单计价模式下建筑工程招投标价格形成机制变革

当前建筑市场实行工程量清单计价模式,但工程量清单计价只是通过市场竞争形成交易价格的技术手段,并非推行工程量清单计价就一定会形成合理的市场价格,从而有效地配置资源。结合建筑工程价格形成机理,从当前建筑市场典型现象人手,深入分析了建筑交易市场中工程价格形成过程中深层次原因,进而提出了相应的变革措施。这些措施对于形成统一、开放有序、高效的建筑市场具有积极的实践意义。     

Evaluating the long term impacts of transport policy: The case of passenger rail privatisation

Britain's national rail system was ‘privatised’ as a result of the 1993 Railways Act, with most of the organisational and ownership changes implemented by 1997. This paper examines the long term impacts of these changes. A key issue when examining long term changes is that of the counterfactual – what would have happened if the changes had not occurred? A simple econometric model of the demand for passenger rail services was developed and used in conjunction with extrapolative methods for key variables such as fares and train km to determine demand-side counterfactuals. Extrapolative methods were also used to determine counterfactual infrastructure and train operation costs. Although our results are sensitive to the assumptions we have made concerning the counterfactual they suggest a number of impacts. Since privatisation, rail demand has grown strongly but our analysis indicates that transitional disruptions suppressed demand by around 9% over a prolonged period (1992/3 to 2005/6), whilst the Hatfield accident reduced demand by about 5%, albeit over a shorter period (2000/1 to 2006/7). A welfare analysis suggests that although consumers seem to have gained as a result of privatisation, for most years this has been offset by increases in costs. An exception is provided by the two years immediately before the Hatfield accident. Overall the loss in welfare since the reforms were introduced far exceeds the net receipts from the sale of rail businesses. Thus although the reforms have had advantages in terms of lower fares and better service levels than otherwise would have been the case, this appears to have been offset by increased infrastructure and train operations costs. The source of these high costs remains an area of speculation but appear to be related to aspects of both market and regulatory failure.     

Federal ports policy

In contrast to the centralized port-planning framework that is utilized in some industrialized countries, the US relies on a complex and fragmented framework in which responsibility for the planning, development and operation of landside maritime infrastructure rests with State and local governments. It has been argued that the separation of the federal government from port policy was rooted in the port preference clause of the Constitution. This paper is an effort to determine whether the current decentralized port policy in fact stems from the Constitution and, to that end, reviews how over the years the US Supreme Court has construed the port preference clause in the Constitution. It was found that there is no evidence to support the assertion that the port preference clause has restricted the development of Federal port policy. Moreover, the decentralized and fragmented decision-making process that is evident today does not imply the absence of federal impact. Rather, it reflects federal involvement through multiple agencies and regulatory processes and is a conscious effort, consistent with other areas of transport infrastructure development, to retain local decision-making for infrastructure investments. It is concluded by raising the issue whether current federal involvement in ports (that is, existing federal port policy), through dredging, landside transportation improvements or subsidized capital, among other things, needs to be reappraised before a new round of capital intensive investment begins.     

Coastal port reform in China

This paper reviews reforms that have been happening to the China coastal port industry. It covers the economic background, motivations and progress of the reforms, and discusses issues associated with relevant planning events, such as the National Layout Plan for Coastal Ports. It is concluded that the reforms are necessary for the industry to raise funds for infrastructure expansion and to enhance the industry efficiency, and that China has adopted appropriate steps to change the industry governance and to pass relevant plans in the reform process.