Influence of temperature on the tyre rolling resistance

Temperature is a very important factor controlling rolling resistance of road vehicle tyres. There are at least three different temperatures that may be considered as important factors controlling thermal conditions of the rolling tyre. The most common measure of the thermal conditions during tyre rolling is ambient air temperature. The other two are: pavement temperature and “tyre” temperature. Tyre temperature is the most difficult to establish, as temperatures of different parts of rolling tyres differ considerably, thus there is a problem to obtain representative values. In the authors’ opinion, air temperature is the most universal and reliable parameter to measure. The article presents results obtained in the Technical University of Gdańsk during laboratory and road measurements of different car tyres rolling on different pavements. The knowledge of rolling resistance characteristics is important for modelling car dynamics as well as fuel consumption. It is also necessary to establish proper test conditions in the future standardized on-road method of measuring rolling resistance. The results indicate that generally each tyre and pavement combination is influenced by the air temperature in a unique way, but at the same it is possible to propose some general influence factors that may be used to normalize measurements to the standard temperature of 25 °C.     

Influence of load and inflation pressure on the tyre rolling resistance

Tyre load and inflation pressure are important factors controlling rolling resistance of road vehicles. The article presents results obtained in the Technical University of Gdańsk during laboratory and road measurements of different car tyres rolling on different pavements. The knowledge of rolling resistance characteristics is important for modelling car dynamics as well as fuel consumption. It is also necessary to establish proper test conditions in the future standardized on-road method of measuring rolling resistance. The results indicate that while an increase of load always leads to the increase of rolling resistance force, the influence on Coefficient of Rolling Resistance is more complicated and unpredictable. They also indicate that tyres with high rolling resistance are more sensitive to inflation pressure changes than low rolling resistance tyres.     

胎面轮廓形状优化技术研究--提高轮胎耐磨耗性能

胎面轮廓形状对轮胎的耐磨耗性能影响很大，因此对其进行优化很有意义。针对胎面轮廓形状比较复杂的特点，文中采用多个变量来定义胎面轮廓。同时，在现有磨耗理论的基础上，通过对胎面轮廓形状的优化初步给出了评价轮胎耐磨耗性能的指标。在此基础上，采用自编的多目标优化程序对胎面轮廓进行优化，并将计算结果与原胎数据进行了比较，结果表明，不论是从胎面的磨耗速度还是从胎面磨耗的均匀性来说优化胎都要优于原始。     

轮胎径向尺寸对加速行驶车外噪声的影响

为了准确获取轮胎径向尺寸变化对加速行驶车外噪声试验的影响,文章采用同一辆乘用车换装2种型号轮胎,依据GB1495—2002《汽车加速行驶车外噪声限值及测量方法》进行对比试验。结果显示,轮胎径向尺寸变化会对加速行驶车外噪声试验结果产生影响,并指出采用径向尺寸较小的轮胎,加速行驶车外噪声试验过程中汽车发动机转速越高,噪声试验最终结果也越大。文章建议将轮胎尺寸的差异列为车型判定的条件。     

Geometric-based tyre vertical force estimation and stiffness parameterisation for automotive and unmanned vehicle applications

Advanced empirical, and physical-based tyre models have proven to be accurate for simulating tyre dynamics; however, these tyre models typically require expensive and intensive tyre parameterisation. Recent research into wheeled unmanned ground vehicles requiring vertical force analysis has shown good results using a simple linear spring model for the tyre which demonstrate the continued use for simple tyre models; however, parameterisation of the tyre still remains a challenge when load test equipment is not available. This paper presents a cost-effective tyre vertical stiffness parameterisation procedure using only measured tyre geometry and air pressure for applications where high-fidelity tyre models are unnecessary. Vertical forces calculated through an air volume optimisation approach are used to estimate tyre vertical stiffness. Nine tyres from the literature are compared to evaluate the performance of the vertical force estimation and stiffness parameterisation algorithms. Experimental results on a pair of ATV tyres are also presented.     

轮胎滚动阻力试验系统研究

许多汽车性能试验均在底盘测功机上进行，而轮胎滚动阻力是影确测试精度的重要原因。由于目前我国大多数企业均使用双滚筒式底盘测功机，所以设计双滚筒式测功机上轮胎滚动阻力测试系统，将为台试轮胎滚动阻力特性研究奠定基础。双滚筒式试验台上测试轮胎滚动阻力采用反拖法实现，滚动阻力测试系统由双滚筒式底盘测功机改制而成。通过对加载方式、误差处理方法、系统测试精度等问题的探讨，验证了系统的可靠性和准确性。     

Investigation of Features of Tyre Rolling at Non-Small Velocities on the Basis of a Simple Tyre Model with Distributed Mass Periphery

SUMMARY

On the basis of the brush-type tyre model the paper considers the interaction between steady-state rolling deformable wheel and flat road surface as well as corresponding force and moment characteristics of the wheel.

At least two zones of sliding, anisotropic dry friction, sliding friction coefficient speed-dependent and instantaneous leap of the friction coefficient when transition from sliding to adhesion zone occurs, have been taken into account, as well as distributed peripheral mass of tyre, elasticity, pseudo-dry friction and damping properties in radial, tangential and lateral directions of the elements at the wheel periphery, including a visco-elastic belt. Vertical force distribution in the contact area is not supposed to be known in advance and follows from the calculation. As a result, sliding zone lengths, distributed forces in contact area, six components of generalized road reaction reduced to the wheel center, and rolling resistance moment are found as functions of vertical load, movement velocity, longitudinal and side slip, friction in contact area with road, stiffnesses, dry friction and damping in the tyre model elements and of distributed peripheral mass.

A computer program developed in Fortran and results of calculations are of particular interest for qualitative analysis including steady rolling of studded tyre and also racing car and aircraft tyres which peripheral mass shows itself in a special way because of great movement velocities.     

Longitudinal wheel slip during ABS braking

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) braking tests with two subcompact passenger cars were performed on dry and wet asphalt, as well as on snow and ice surfaces. The operating conditions of the tyres in terms of wheel slip were evaluated using histograms of the wheel slip data. The results showed different average slip levels for different road surfaces. It was also found that changes in the tyre tread stiffness affected the slip operating range through a modification of the slip value at which the maximum longitudinal force is achieved. Variation of the tyre footprint length through modifications in the inflation pressure affected the slip operating range as well. Differences in the slip distribution between vehicles with different brake controllers were also observed. The changes in slip operating range in turn modified the relative local sliding speeds between the tyre and the road. The results highlight the importance of the ABS controller's ability to adapt to changing slip–force characteristics of tyres and provide estimates of the magnitude of the effects of different tyre and road operating conditions.     

ZnOw改善橡胶和轮胎耐磨性能的研究

研究了ZnOw／NR—SBR—BR复合材料的耐磨性能，发现经偶联剂表面处理的ZnOw对提高橡胶材料的耐磨性能有良好的效果。在轮胎胎面胶中加入3份标准配方的氧化锌晶须对轮胎进行改性，结果表明，氧化锌晶须不仅可以改善橡胶和轮胎的耐磨性能，而且可以提高轮胎的高速安全性和耐久性。对复合材料受磨表面和截面的微观形貌进行了研究，分析了氧化锌晶须提高橡胶复合材料耐磨性能的机理，并提出可以用橡胶材料表面分形维数值的大小来判断磨损程度。     

高原汽车轮胎损坏的原因分析

以五十铃汽车为例，分析了在高原使用汽车轮胎易损坏的原因。认为：轮胎气压不符合要求、超载严重、前轮定位不合要求、前轮不平衡、道路条件差及驾驶员技术水平低是导致损坏的主要原因。在使用中应正确控制轮胎气压，谨慎驾驶，加强对轮胎的管理和保养，以提高轮胎的使用寿命。     

轮胎制动与驱动特性的理论模型

轮胎印迹内垂直载荷的分布与形式的选择，对建立轮胎制动与驱动特性的理论模型有很大影响。根据轮胎制动和驱动时印迹内垂直载荷分布特性，以及轮胎的前后变形特性，建立了轮胎制动、驱动特性的理论模型。应用该理论模型的计算结果，与试验结果具有很好的一致性。     

A model for prediction of the transient rolling resistance of tyres based on inner-liner temperatures

Measurements of rolling resistance in thermal equilibrium of a tyre, like measurements according to ISO 28580, do not allow statements about rolling resistances under other driving conditions. Such statements, however, are necessary to determine the energy consumption in driving cycles. Especially for the proper calculation of electric-vehicle remaining ranges and the selection of the respective driving strategies, the real amount of energy consumption is required. This paper presents a model approach, which by means of only one standardised rolling resistance measurement can be parameterised and, considering the present driving speed and tyre temperature, can predict the respective current rolling resistance.     

Experimental analysis of tyre-enveloping characteristics at low speed

In this study, experiments are conducted to investigate tyre-enveloping characteristics. Four different types of tyres are tested. Parameters such as different tyre inflation pressures, vertical loads and types of obstacles (cleats) are considered. In addition to vertical stiffnesses of all tyres, vertical and horizontal force variations while traversing different obstacles at low speed are studied. The effects of inflation pressure and vertical load on variations of force and moment are investigated. Static test results showed that after a certain vertical displacement, all curves in force–deflection diagrams plotted with and without cleat intersect regardless of cleat and tyre types, depending on the inflation pressure of the tyre, which can be called typical static tyre-enveloping characteristics. Test results at low speed show that there is a considerable influence of the vertical load on vertical and lateral force responses of a tyre.     

Measurement of stress distributions in truck tyre contact patch in real rolling conditions

Stress distributions on three orthogonal directions have been measured across the contact patch of truck tyres using the complex measuring system that contains a transducer assembly with 30 sensing elements placed in the road surface. The measurements have been performed in straight line, in real rolling conditions. Software applications for calibration, data acquisition, and data processing were developed. The influence of changes in inflation pressure and rolling speed on the shapes and sizes of truck tyre contact patch has been shown. The shapes and magnitudes of normal, longitudinal, and lateral stress distributions, measured at low speed, have been presented and commented. The effect of wheel toe-in and camber on the stress distribution results was observed. The paper highlights the impact of the longitudinal tread ribs on the shear stress distributions. The ratios of stress distributions in the truck tyre contact patch have been computed and discussed.     

Tyre–road grip coefficient assessment – Part II: online estimation using instrumented vehicle,extended Kalman filter,and neural network

The main objective of this work is to determine the limit of safe driving conditions by identifying the maximal friction coefficient in a real vehicle. The study will focus on finding a method to determine this limit before reaching the skid, which is valuable information in the context of traffic safety. Since it is not possible to measure the friction coefficient directly, it will be estimated using the appropriate tools in order to get the most accurate information. A real vehicle is instrumented to collect information of general kinematics and steering tie-rod forces. A real-time algorithm is developed to estimate forces and aligning torque in the tyres using an extended Kalman filter and neural networks techniques. The methodology is based on determining the aligning torque; this variable allows evaluation of the behaviour of the tyre. It transmits interesting information from the tyre–road contact and can be used to predict the maximal tyre grip and safety margin. The maximal grip coefficient is estimated according to a knowledge base, extracted from computer simulation of a high detailed three-dimensional model, using Adams^® software. The proposed methodology is validated and applied to real driving conditions, in which maximal grip and safety margin are properly estimated.     

韩泰持续关注卡客车轮胎安全

由于公路运输业发展迅速,卡客车轮胎的需求量也在不断增长。由于轮胎的使用环境及条件发生了很大变化,用户对轮胎的要求也越来越高。许多用户不懂轮胎的构造、性能和特点,不能正确使用和保养轮胎,从而导致轮胎早期损坏。有数据显示:2010年全国共接报道路交通事故390万6164起,同比上升35.9%,安全隐患已成为车主最关心的问题之一。     

轮胎质量改进

为了改进轮胎质量及其使用寿命，分析了影响轮胎制造质量及其使用寿命的因素，改进了轮胎结构、胶料配方、花纹设计及轮胎生产工艺等。道路试验结果表明，轮胎的各项性能均达到了性能标准。     

New tyre-road contact model for applications at low speed

Most of the tyre models have been developed for high speed, combined forces, etc., however, in certain tests it is necessary to know tyre behaviour at very low speed in order to evaluate different systems. So, during vehicle inspection and maintenance of the steering and brake system, by means of sideslip tester and roller brake tester respectively, the forces transmitted by the tyres are measured; all of these inspections are carried out at low speeds. Furthermore, usually, automobile vehicles run at low speeds during an important part of their operating life (less than 60 km/h), mainly during urban traffic, and in steady state conditions. Therefore, it is particularly interesting to develop an accurate model of the contact patch tyrepavement for low speeds without the complexity of models that cover a wide speed range but provide less precision at very low speeds. The dynamometer plate has proved to be an appropriate test equipment to characterise the tyre-pavement contact at low speed and the steering geometry and wheel alignment. It has the feature of being able to carry out tests with the tyre installed in the vehicle as in completely real conditions. The main aim of this research is to set up a contact model between tyre and pavement at very low speed based on the measurement of longitudinal and lateral forces. A test methodology that allows carrying out the experimental tests in a systematic and controlled way with the dynamometer plate has also been developed. From this model it will be possible to estimate the forces that tyres are capable of transmitting in different situations to act in the parameters which affect these forces and maximize them.