A Step Zero Analysis of the Galapagos Marine Reserve

Contrary to common perceptions, the creation of protected areas does not start when they are officially declared but generally follows a long process. For instance, the Galapagos Marine Reserve (GMR) was not “born” when it was formally announced on March 18^th 1998, but several decades before that. Through document analysis and key informant interviews, we applied the “step zero” approach to examine what happened prior to the implementation of the GMR. This study reveals that the GMR did not arise from a social and political vacuum; rather, events took place in the distant past, even centuries ago, influenced the reserve's creation and current status. Its establishment was driven by complex geopolitical, economic, social, and environmental factors from both within and outside Galapagos. Additionally, the process of creating the GMR was convoluted, marked by hidden interests and conflictive political agendas that triggered controversies between users. The making of the GMR was also influenced by the interest in promoting “nature-based” tourism, and the regulations that followed had disadvantaged small-scale fishers. This knowledge about the reserve's pre-implementation phase enables a broader understanding of the current challenges facing the performance of the GMR and points to possible governance interventions needed to enhance its sustainability.     

Krill behaviour as recorded by acoustic doppler current profilers in the Gullmarsfjord

Vertical distribution of sound scattering layers were observed using bottom deployed acoustic doppler current profilers (ADCP) during early spring of 1996 and autumn of 1997 in the Gullmarsfjord on the Swedish west coast. Variations in relative backscatter were interpreted in relation to horizontal water velocities, oxygen saturation as well as differences in the light, salinity and temperature regimes. Net catches revealed that much of the backscatter below 20-m depth was associated with the presence of krill, principally Meganyctiphanes norvegica.Horizontal currents seemed to influence the migration and distribution of krill, which showed weak vertical migration patterns with low abundance during periods of strong intermediate in- and outflows, while during periods with weaker currents, a more regular diel migration occurred. Horizontal water velocities >5 cm s⁻¹ seemed to have the potential to decrease the peak in the backscatter profile. Mean vertical migration rates of krill was 1 cm s⁻¹, while maximum vertical migration rates were estimated to be 2.5–3 cm s⁻¹. The range of the vertical migration was different in 1997 due to severe oxygen deficiency in the bottom water, which prevented the krill from descending >80 m. The commencement of vertical migration correlated closely to the seasonal light conditions. The descent was immediately triggered by sunrise, while ascent occurred with a delay of about 1 h at sunset.