An application of BBNs on the integrated energy efficiency of ship–port interface: a dry bulk shipping case

ABSTRACT

A considerable amount of energy is consumed with every completed ship voyage and each port operation performed. Recent regulative approaches by the IMO are to enforce the shipping industry to become more energy efficient and sustainable. There is a growing amount of literature on the energy efficiency management of ships and ports. However, there is still inadequate research effort on the ship–port interface in order to obtain an Integrated Energy Efficiency framework for marine transport operations. In this research, a theoretical concept is generated to measure holistic energy efficiency in shipping operations. The main purpose of this paper is to identify nodes of the integrated ship-port energy efficiency framework and develop a probabilistic approach, which can help to increase energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions for shipping companies. This research generates an application of BBNs on ship–port interface regarding the integrated operational energy efficiency interactions by aiming to optimise holistic operational energy efficiency and CO2 emissions. The outcomes suggest that it would be possible to increase the probability of a more energy efficient and sustainable marine transport operation by integrating the influences of port and ship operation performances and their elements on the related route planning and slow steaming decision-making.     

The impact of port operations on efficient ship operation from both economic and environmental perspectives

Recently, shipping lines have focused on efficient ship operation, which relates to energy efficiency issues in shipping and, particularly, to operational issues such that the minimisation of fuel consumption and resulting greenhouse gas emissions. Efficient ship operation in container lines is closely related to the ship’s time at sea and ship’s time in port. Reduction in port time, thanks to high-quality port operations, allows improvement in the operational efficiency of a liner service by reducing the fuel consumption of a ship at sea and its resulting CO₂ emissions. The main goal of this article is to investigate how time in port affects efficient ship operation in terms of operating costs, CO₂ emissions and externalities. For this, as a methodology, a simulation based upon system dynamics is introduced. Major finding is that less time in port resulting from the improvement of port operations contributes to efficient ship operation in terms of operating costs, amount of CO₂ emissions and external effects in the liner shipping industry. In particular, a sensitivity analysis on efficient ship operation vis-à-vis the quality of port operation shows that bigger ships need to select highly productive calling ports that provide less time in port.     

采用沿岸动力概念以减少埃及红海海域高速船燃料消耗与降低排放(英文)

The progress of economic globalization,the rapid growth of international trade,and the maritime transportation has played an increasingly significant role in the international supply chain.As a result,worldwide seaports have suffered from a central problem,which appears in the form of massive amounts of fuel consumed and exhaust gas fumes emitted from the ships while berthed.Many ports have taken the necessary precautions to overcome this problem,while others still suffer due to the presence of technical and financial constraints.In this paper,the barriers,interconnection standards,rules,regulations,power sources,and economic and environmental analysis related to ships,shore-side power were studied in efforts to find a solution to overcome his problem.As a case study,this paper investigates the practicability,costs and benefits of switching from onboard ship auxiliary engines to shore-side power connection for high-speed crafts called Alkahera while berthed at the port of Safaga,Egypt.The results provide the national electricity grid concept as the best economical selection with 49.03 percent of annual cost saving.Moreover,environmentally,it could achieve an annual reduction in exhaust gas emissions of CO2,CO,NOx,P.M,and SO2by 276,2.32,18.87,0.825 and 3.84 tons,respectively.     

多种节能减排技术在VLCC上的应用分析

从节能、绿色环保的理念出发,以30万t级VLCC为对象,综合比较LNG燃料供气系统、弗莱特纳旋转风筒节能装置,以及空气润滑系统等船舶动力装置节能减排技术,分析对比表明,在VLCC上综合应用这3种节能减排技术,可直接满足EEDI第三阶段排放要求,经不同的航行路线测算,该型VLCC年度综合节省油耗可达8%~12%,节能减排效果显著。     

Cost assessment of ship emission reduction methods at berth: the case of the Port of Piraeus,Greece

This paper addresses the problem of ship exhaust emissions at the Port of Piraeus and undertakes the challenge of finding a cost-effective option for its reduction according to the upcoming requirements of the 2005/33/EU Directive, through analysis of port traffic data and the utilisation of the experience gained through previous studies in this field. The Port of Piraeus makes a particularly suitable reference for this type of work, since it is one of the busiest and highly urbanised ports in the world. It is shown that cruise ships calling at Piraeus fulfill the criteria of selection for such an exercise by virtue of their frequency of calling, berth power requirements and time spent at berth. It was found that, according to current practice, cruise ships at berth consume 11 034 tons of fuel and produce 620.1 tons of NO_X, 274.8 tons of SO₂ and 20.7 tons of PM, totalling to 915.6 tons of exhaust emissions per year. This represents an overall annual cost of 21 million euro, divided between private (bunkering) and external (emission damage) costs by 19.4% and 80.6%, respectively. With regard to the upcoming EU requirements for ship power at berth, it was found that, irrespective of whether operating on ultralow-sulphur (0.1% sulphur) fuel or on shore-side electricity, a sizeable reduction in emissions and associated external costs is achieved, whereas private costs were always higher than those of the current practice. Comparing the two options, it was further found that the shore-side electricity presents the lowest external costs but highest private costs, whereas the overall costs are around 25% lower than the onboard use of ultralow-sulphur fuel.     

Air pollution impact of maritime shipping operations in the port of Houston

Abstract

Major air pollutants from maritime shipping operations are sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter emissions from combustion of fuel oil during cruise, berth, and start‐up modes. Sulfur oxides emissions are substantial from steamships burning high‐sulfur residual fuel oil, where shipping contributes 66 percent of the total sulfur dioxide emissions from transportation sources, and almost 3 percent of the total for Harris county, Texas. Nitrogen oxides emissions are significant during cruise conditions for both steamships and motor ships, while particulate emissions are substantial during start‐up and tube cleaning.

Significant marine air pollutant emission sources are found in busy harbor areas such as the Houston Ship Channel. Offshore terminals for unloading large tankers may result in emissions of 10 to 20 tons of sulfur oxides daily per ship, and 3 to 5 tons of nitrogen oxides daily per ship during pumping operations. Trace‐metal constituents present in the oil may catalyze sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide oxidation to their respective sulfate and nitrate aerosols in the humid Texas Gulf Coast atmospheres to aggravate photochemical air pollution problems once the air masses reach industrial and populated urban areas on land. Onshore sulfur dioxide and particulate‐matter emission controls may be necessary for some large ships in port to minimize potential impact on coastal zone air quality.     

The effects of slow steaming on the environmental performance in liner shipping

The environment issue is one of the significant challenges that the liner shipping industry has to face. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has set a goal to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from existing vessels by 20–50% by 2050 and develop the Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI) as a measure for energy efficiency. To achieve this goal, IMO has suggested three basic approaches: the enlargement of vessel size, the reduction of voyage speed, and the application of new technologies. In recent times, liners have adopted slow steaming and decelerated the voyage speed to 15–18 knots on major routes. This is because slow steaming is helpful in reducing operating costs and GHG emissions. However, it also creates negative effects that influence the operating costs and the amount of GHG emissions at the same time.

This study started with the basic question: Is it true that as voyage speed reduces, the operating costs and CO₂ emissions can be reduced at the same time? If this is true, liners will definitely decelerate their voyage speed themselves as much as possible so that they can increase their profits and improve the level of environmental performance. However, if this is not true, then liners will concentrate just on increasing their profits by not considering environmental factors. This led the authors to set out three objectives: (1) to analyze the relationship between voyage speed and the amount of CO₂ emissions and to estimate the changes by slow steaming in liner shipping; (2) to analyze the relationship between voyage speed and the operating costs on a loop; and (3) to find the optimal voyage speed as a solution to maximize the reduction of CO₂ emissions at the lowest operating cost, thus satisfying the reduction target of IMO.     

基于绿色GDP 的区域临港产业发展优化模型

为解决区域临港产业发展优化中存在的资源浪费和环境污染问题,综合考虑经济发展、资源消耗与环境污染等3方面,以绿色GDP最大为优化目标构建了区域临港产业发展优化模型;以上海地区临港产业发展优化为例,对模型的合理性和有效性进行了验证。结果表明,该模型可以兼顾经济、资源和环境等方面对区域临港产业的发展进行综合优化,可以为区域临港产业的可持续发展提供决策参考。     

面向可再生能源利用的集装箱港口环境经济效益仿真

可再生能源具有环境友好、可循环利用等优点,综合利用可再生能源是绿色集装箱港口发展的必然趋势。应用系统仿真的方法量化港口装卸生产能源消耗量,结合环境经济效益计算方法定量分析可再生能源替代传统能源的环境经济效益。以某港区采用风力发电为例,对比分析集卡、岸桥和场桥能源替代后的环境效益与经济效益。     

连云港港徐圩港区30万t级原油码头港内水域泥沙回淤及减淤措施研究

针对连云港港徐圩港区30万t级原油码头港内回旋水域及停泊水域的泥沙回淤问题,利用潮流泥沙数学模拟手段,根据预测的常年港内水域的回淤强度,进行了港内水域回淤环境的综合分析。根据回淤研究成果,并考虑工程实际情况,提出了具有可实施性、有针对性的减淤措施—积淤槽,并采用潮流泥沙数模对减淤效果进行了研究分析。通过技术和经济综合评价,研究了积淤槽减淤的经济效益和社会效益,为港内水域减淤措施的进一步研究提供了理论依据。     

低碳港口评价指标体系的创建和赋值研究

针对低碳港口评价标准缺失的现状,以绿色、节能、降碳、减污为基本出发点,基于P-S-R模型,运用层次分析法和德尔菲法创建低碳港口评价的指标体系,涵盖了碳排放指标、能源活动指标、水资源指标、绿色建筑指标、绿色用电指标、环境碳汇指标和管理体系指标7项一级指标和21项二级指标。指标体系采用定量和定性指标结合的方式,具有较好的系统性、科学性和港口特色,可操作性强,对港口降碳减排具有较好的协同性。同时提出低碳港口评价指标权重的赋值方法和判断标准,并依据规范标准、行业发展规划、管理条例和港口历年统计资料,提供了指标评价的基准值。研究成果为低碳港口创建提供了完整、科学的评价依据,具有较好的应用前景。     

Effect of proposed CO2 emission reduction scenarios on capital expenditure

The International Maritime Organisation is currently working on establishing regulations for international shipping regarding greenhouse gas emissions, and a cost-effectiveness approach has been suggested as one method for determining the necessary reductions in emissions from shipping. Previous studies have investigated the CO₂ emission reduction potential for the world shipping fleet up to 2030 and the associated marginal abatement cost levels. To analyse the cost implications of different emission reduction scenarios, this study has calculated the emission reduction potential and additional capital expenditure for 25 CO₂ emission reduction measures applied to 59 ship segments. The expected fleet development over time, keeping track of new ships built from 2010 to 2030 and Existing ships built prior to 2010 and still in operation by 2030, have been modelled. Two alternative approaches to find the cost-effective potential in the world shipping fleet have been applied. One approach is to implement only measures which in themselves are cost-effective (measure-by-measure), and another approach is to implement measures as long as the net savings from cost-effective measures balance the costs of non-cost-effective measures (set of measures). The results demonstrate that by 2030, the majority (93%) of the reduction potential will be related to new ships. Our results show that the measure-by-measure approach would decrease the CO₂ emissions by 30% for new ships while the set-of-measures approach with 53% (of the 2030 baseline emissions of 1316?Mt). The implication of achieving such emission reduction is an increase in the capital expenditure on New ships by 6% (USD 183 billion) and 27% (USD 761 billion), respectively, in the period 2010 to 2030 compared to a business-as-usual scenario. The measure-by-measure approach yields a 5% decrease in CO₂ emission per 1% increase in capital expenditure, while the set-of-measures approach yields a 2% decrease per 1% increase. This is due to the significant variation in capital intensity of the different measures, ranging from almost zero to USD 200 per tonne of CO₂ averted. The results of this study are useful for the shipping industry to assess the economic burden that must be shouldered in order to implement abatement measures under different CO₂ emission reduction scenarios.     

Environmental assessment in the Prc: Third phase of the Qinhuangdao coal port

Abstract

The use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) is relatively recent in the People's Republic of China (PRC). China is committed to a reversal of the environmental degradation resulting from its industrialization and the central government has initiated a requirement for environmental planning and assessment for large development projects. Today large scale harbor developments are subject to the requirements of the National Environmental Protection Law (1979) and the Marine Environmental Law (1982). Because the third phase expansion of the coal port of Qinhuangdao would increase the ports’ capacity to handle coal by 30 to 50 million tons, an EIA was required.

Since 1981, the Environment and Policy Institute of the East‐West Center (EWC), Honolulu, has had a program of research focusing on the environmental impacts of coal transportation. On the basis of workshops in China that centered on the problems associated with planning coal transportation projects, the Ministry of Communications of the PRC invited the EWC to participate in the environmental assessment for the third phase coal port expansion at Qinhuangdao. A 10‐member team with specialities in environmental assessment and port environmental problems from five countries representing the EWC worked with a 25‐member team from four different agencies of the PRC Ministry of Communications.

This article describes the environmental regulations in the PRC that affect this harbor expansion, discusses the process by which the EWC assisted the PRC in the preparation of the environmental assessment and evaluates the assessment product against PRC regulations and U.S. standards. The most important contribution of the EWC was the provision of guidelines adapted from the EIA experience in several countries which will assist the PRC in the environmental evaluation of future pon expansion projects.     

Examining stakeholder participation and conflicts associated with large scale infrastructure projects: the case of Tema port expansion project,Ghana

ABSTRACT

Balancing economic activities with socio-environmental considerations has become a global standard for the construction of large scale infrastructure projects, including ports. In this discourse, stakeholder participation and environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) have been stressed as important tools that can help port managers to co-create values, avoid conflicts and promote inclusive growth. Drawing on qualitative research tools and stakeholder theory, this paper explores whether and to what extent local stakeholders’ inclusion has substantial influence on addressing their socio-cultural concerns and interest. This is illustrated with a case study of an ongoing port expansion project at Ghana’s largest port of Tema. The findings suggest that although the port authority conducted an ESIA and engaged local stakeholders as part of the planning process, this did not translate into preventing the loss of valuable cultural resources of the local communities. The port authority did not place ‘value’ on cultural resources of the local communities that cannot be expressed in monetary terms. Further, lack of good faith engagement with local stakeholders led to conflicts in some cases that triggered a court action and delays. The paper concludes that stakeholder participation if not applied well, can become a ‘post-political’ tool.     

The political economy of ports in the United States and Great Britain

Abstract

This is an exploration of the political economy of ports in the United States and Great Britain. A number of technical, economic, and political issues concerning ports are examined. Particular attention is paid to the institutional evolution of ports from private to public ownership, and its consequences for port efficiency. The paper concludes with a set of recommendations designed to reverse the trend toward port nationalization in both countries.     

Manoeuvring and hotelling external costs: enough for alternative energy sources?

Local air pollution is the most relevant externality of maritime transport, and its effects are more acute in urban areas as a result of manoeuvring, hotelling and load/unload activities at ports. This article is intended to assess ships’ local air pollution impact in generally densely populated harbour areas to decide whether alternative power supply measures are feasible. First, an optimized infrastructure investment model is developed to ease implementation and maximize the efficiency of alternative power supply projects. Once target harbours and traffic (ship types) within a national port network have been chosen, a vessel traffic analysis (ship type, tonnage, manoeuvring, and hotelling times) is carried out to quantify and evaluate annual polluting emissions (PM_2,5, SO₂, NOx, and VOCs) and their externalities. Finally, the assessment model is applied and results of the Spanish port network case study are discussed. The results obtained are significant and bring the possibility of further controlling the ship’s environmental performance at berth.     

Air pollution from ships: Recent developments

All developments on air pollution by ships are fairly recent. Annex VI of the international Marpol-convention, regulating the emissions of CFCs, Halons, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from cargoes, emissions from incinerators and exhaust gas emissions from engines (NO_x and SO_x) entered into force in May 2005. The International Maritime Organization is currently discussing an upgrade of the air pollution issues covered by Annex VI and some that are not in Annex VI, such as greenhouse gas emissions. CO₂ is the most important greenhouse gas emitted by ship. Fuel consumption by the world merchant fleet is expected to grow to between 250–300 million tons per year with corresponding CO₂ emissions of 800–960 million tons per year. In Western Europe land based measures have reduced sulphur emissions substantially, leaving shipping as an important remaining source of these emissions. Average sulphur content of heavy fuel oils is 3%, with a limit of 4.5% imposed by Annex VI. Both the Baltic- and the North Sea have the status of SO_x emission control area, limiting sulphur content to 1.5%.     

国、内外港口船舶岸电技术的发展和应用现状

目前,在国家日益重视节能减排和环境保护的大背景下,使用岸上电源系统为靠港船舶供电作为解决我国港口环境污染问题的全新尝试已有成功的范例,并在一些港口开展试点工作。重点介绍国内、外船舶岸电技术的发展和已建连云港港客滚码头59#泊位船舶岸电系统的配置情况,并对天津港现有泊位实施岸电技术改造后能够取得的经济效益和环境效益进行预测评估。根据国内港口的现实情况,提出全面实施港口船舶岸电系统存在的主要问题和相关意见与建议。     

Overview of past, present and future marine power plants

In efforts to overcome an foreseeable energy crisis predicated on limited oil and gas supplies, reserves; economic variations facing the world, and of course the environmental side effects of fossil fuels, an urgent need for energy sources that provide sustainable, safe and economic supplies for the world is imperative. The current fossil fuel energy system must be improved to ensure a better and cleaner transportation future for the world. Despite the fact that the marine transportation sector consumes only 5% of global petroleum production; it is responsible for 15% of the world NO _x and SO _x emissions. These figures must be the engine that powers the scientific research worldwide to develop new solutions for a very old energy problem. In this paper, the most effective types of marine power plants were discussed. The history of the development of each type was presented first and the technical aspects were discussed second. Also, the fuel cells as a new type of power plants used in marine sector were briefed to give a complete overview of the past, present and future of the marine power plants development. Based on the increased worldwide concerns regarding harmful emissions, many researchers have introduced solutions to this problem, including the adoption of new cleaner fuels. This paper was guided using the same trend and by implementing the hydrogen as fuel for marine internal combustion engine, gas turbines, and fuel cells.     

Financial and environmental impacts of hypothetical Finnish dry port structure

One main theme of European Union’s in transport policy statements has been the increased role of railways in the reducing environmental impacts and costs of transport activity. One option to increase the modal share of rail transport is to utilize the dry port concept, particularly applicable to general cargo. At the Port of Gothenburg (Sweden) use of this concept in combination with rail transport has led to a reduction of CO₂ emissions, and lower transport energy costs. The main objective and motivation of this research work are to examine through analytical models, how this same dry port concept could be implemented in the Finnish transportation network, with estimates of the benefits being gained.The research method of this study is macro gravitational models of distribution. Main input data for the models are distances and population in the area. The approach aims to research, how relative transport costs behave by increasing the number of dry port distribution locations. For the actual computation work the authors apply linear integer programming. Based on the results, the authors argue that relative transport costs can decrease considerably by increasing the number of dry ports, up to the level of six locations. This is considerably less than what is the current situation in Sweden. The found solution also differs from Sweden as the fragmented Finnish seaport system enables using numerous seaports instead of one, which further decreases inland transportation distances and volumes considerably. At the same time forthcoming sulphur emission reduction regulation (for sea transports) might impact the transportation network structure by decreasing sea transport and the number of seaports used. This might lead to a further increase in land-based hinterland transport.