A review of dynamics modelling of friction draft gear

Longer and heavier trains mean larger in-train forces and more complicated force patterns. Practical experience indicates that the development of fatigue failure of coupling systems in long heavy trains may differ from conventional understanding. The friction-type draft gears are the most widely used draft gears. The ever developing heavy haul transport environment requires further or new understanding of friction draft gear behaviour and its implications for train dynamics as well as fatigue damage of rolling stock. However, modelling of friction draft gears is a highly nonlinear question. Especially the poor predictability, repeatability and the discontinuity of friction make this task more challenging. This article reviews current techniques in dynamics modelling of friction draft gears to provide a starting point that can be used to improve existing or develop new models to achieve more accurate force amplitude and pattern predictions.     

Longitudinal train dynamics: an overview

This paper discusses the evolution of longitudinal train dynamics (LTD) simulations, which covers numerical solvers, vehicle connection systems, air brake systems, wagon dumper systems and locomotives, resistance forces and gravitational components, vehicle in-train instabilities, and computing schemes. A number of potential research topics are suggested, such as modelling of friction, polymer, and transition characteristics for vehicle connection simulations, studies of wagon dumping operations, proper modelling of vehicle in-train instabilities, and computing schemes for LTD simulations. Evidence shows that LTD simulations have evolved with computing capabilities. Currently, advanced component models that directly describe the working principles of the operation of air brake systems, vehicle connection systems, and traction systems are available. Parallel computing is a good solution to combine and simulate all these advanced models. Parallel computing can also be used to conduct three-dimensional long train dynamics simulations.     

Freight cars shunting impacts analysis using an improved dynamic model of friction draft gear

In this study, simulations of shunting impacts for groups of freight cars that include up to six cars are considered. The simulation technique employs a white-box improved dynamic model of friction draft gear considering all its components and detailed finite element models of the freight cars. The key differences between the one-to-one shunting impact and the impact of long groups of cars in terms of features of the draft gear deflections and the coupler force time history are discussed. We present an example of dynamic finite element analysis for the car body using the coupler force time history obtained from the shunting impact simulation.     

Simulation of longitudinal dynamics of a freight train operating through a car dumper

A heavy haul train and car dumper model was created to analyse train longitudinal dynamics during dumping. Influence of such factors as performance curve of draft gears, total free slack in couplers, operating mode of train positioner and braking of last two cars of train on the in-train forces was considered.     

Coupler rotation behaviour and its effect on heavy haul trains

When a locomotive coupler rotates at an angle, the lateral component of the coupler force has an adverse effect on the locomotive's safety, particularly in heavy haul trains. In this paper, a model of a head-mid configuration, a 20,000-t heavy haul train is developed to analyse the rotation behaviour of the locomotive's coupler system and its effect on the dynamic behaviour of such a train's middle locomotive when operating on tangent and curved tracks. The train model includes detailed coupler and draft gear with which to consider the hysteretic characteristics of the rubber draft gear model, the friction characteristics of the coupler knuckles, and the alignment-control characteristics of the coupler shoulder. The results indicate that the coupler's rotation behaviour differs between the tangent and curved tracks, significantly affecting the locomotive's running performance under the braking condition. A larger coupler rotation angle generates a larger lateral component, which increases the wheelset's lateral force and the derailment coefficient. Decreasing the maximum coupler free angle can improve the locomotive's operational performance and safety. Based on these results, the recommended maximum coupler free angle is 4°.     

International benchmarking of longitudinal train dynamics simulators: results

This paper presents the results of the International Benchmarking of Longitudinal Train Dynamics Simulators which involved participation of nine simulators (TABLDSS, UM, CRE-LTS, TDEAS, PoliTo, TsDyn, CARS, BODYSIM and VOCO) from six countries. Longitudinal train dynamics results and computing time of four simulation cases are presented and compared. The results show that all simulators had basic agreement in simulations of locomotive forces, resistance forces and track gradients. The major differences among different simulators lie in the draft gear models. TABLDSS, UM, CRE-LTS, TDEAS, TsDyn and CARS had general agreement in terms of the in-train forces; minor differences exist as reflections of draft gear model variations. In-train force oscillations were observed in VOCO due to the introduction of wheel–rail contact. In-train force instabilities were sometimes observed in PoliTo and BODYSIM due to the velocity controlled transitional characteristics which could have generated unreasonable transitional stiffness. Regarding computing time per train operational second, the following list is in order of increasing computing speed: VOCO, TsDyn, PoliTO, CARS, BODYSIM, UM, TDEAS, CRE-LTS and TABLDSS (fastest); all simulators except VOCO, TsDyn and PoliTo achieved faster speeds than real-time simulations. Similarly, regarding computing time per integration step, the computing speeds in order are: CRE-LTS, VOCO, CARS, TsDyn, UM, TABLDSS and TDEAS (fastest).     

The mechanism for the coupler and draft gear and its influence on safety during a train collision

A mechanical model of the coupler and draft gear was established to study the mechanism during an intercity train collision. The model includes four rigid bodies, one spherical joint, two nonlinear torsion spring units and two nonlinear hysteresis units. Simulation and test results show that the axial characteristics of the model are reasonable and the model can reasonably simulate the pitching movement of the coupler. The influence of the coupler and draft gear on the collision behaviour of the train is analysed considering a four-section intercity train. The results show that during the collision process, the amount of compression of the middle coupler is an important factor influencing the pitching deflection angle. The pitching motion posture of the coupler changes with the initial pitching deflection angle, but the initial pitching deflection angle has little effect on its yawing deflection angle. When the pitching angle of the middle coupler is elevated, as the elevation angle increases, the derailment risk of the ‘A’ end bogie of the previous vehicle increases, whereas the risk of derailment of the ‘B’ end bogie of the subsequent vehicle decreases. When the pitching angle of the middle coupler is depressed, the derailment trends for the front and rear bogies exhibit the opposite trend from that of the elevation angle. As the train collision speed increases, the pitching motion of the middle coupler is limited to forcing a yawing motion, causing the yawing deflection angle to increase sharply, which causes the wheel–rail lateral force to increase rapidly. From this, the derailment risk of the bogie increases, which further causes large displacement lateral buckling of the train. An anti-lateral buckling device can limit the yawing deflection angle of the middle coupler, preventing lateral buckling from large displacement and decreasing the risk of derailment.     

Modelling,simulation and applications of longitudinal train dynamics

ABSTRACT

Significant developments in longitudinal train simulation and an overview of the approaches to train models and modelling vehicle force inputs are firstly presented. The most important modelling task, that of the wagon connection, consisting of energy absorption devices such as draft gears and buffers, draw gear stiffness, coupler slack and structural stiffness is then presented. Detailed attention is given to the modelling approaches for friction wedge damped and polymer draft gears. A significant issue in longitudinal train dynamics is the modelling and calculation of the input forces – the co-dimensional problem. The need to push traction performances higher has led to research and improvement in the accuracy of traction modelling which is discussed. A co-simulation method that combines longitudinal train simulation, locomotive traction control and locomotive vehicle dynamics is presented. The modelling of other forces, braking propulsion resistance, curve drag and grade forces are also discussed. As extensions to conventional longitudinal train dynamics, lateral forces and coupler impacts are examined in regards to interaction with wagon lateral and vertical dynamics. Various applications of longitudinal train dynamics are then presented. As an alternative to the tradition single wagon mass approach to longitudinal train dynamics, an example incorporating fully detailed wagon dynamics is presented for a crash analysis problem. Further applications of starting traction, air braking, distributed power, energy analysis and tippler operation are also presented.     

An integrated draft gear model with the consideration of wagon body structural characteristics

With the increase of railway wagon axle load and the growth of marshalling quantity, the problem caused by impact and vibration of vehicles is increasingly serious, which leads to the damage of vehicle structures and the components. In order to improve the reliability of longitudinal connection model for vehicle impact tests, a new railway wagon longitudinal connection model was developed to simulate and analyse vehicle impact tests. The new model is based on characteristics of longitudinal force transmission for vehicles and parts. In this model, carbodies and bogies were simplified to a particle system that can vibrate in the longitudinal direction, which corresponded to a stiffness-damping vibration system. The model consists of three sub-models, that is, coupler and draft gear sub-model, centre plate sub-model and carbody structure sub-model. Compared with conventional draft gear models, the new model was proposed with geometrical and mechanical relations of friction draft gears considered and with behaviours of sticking, sliding and impact between centre plate and centre bowl added. Besides, virtual springs between discrete carbodies were built to describe the structural deformation of carbody. A computation program for longitudinal dynamics based on vehicle impact tests was accomplished to simulate. Comparisons and analyses regarding the train dynamics outputs and vehicle impact tests were conducted. Simulation results indicate that the new wagon longitudinal connection model can provide a practical application environment for wagons, and the outputs of vehicle impact tests agree with those of field tests. The new model can also be used to study on longitudinal vibrations of different vehicles, of carbody and bogie, and of carbody itself.     

An improved dynamic model of friction draft gear with a transitional characteristic accounting for housing deformation

A white-box friction draft gear model has been developed. All components of the draft gear are considered. The distinctive feature of the model, as compared to its predecessor, is the transitional characteristic, which accounts for the effect of elastic deformations of the draft gear housing on the position of the friction wedge system components under loading. The adjustment of the model parameters for improved agreement with experimental data is discussed. The new model can be used in the simulation of shunting impacts for single cars and car groups represented by detailed finite-element models. An example of the simulation is presented and compared with experimental data obtained using a shunting hump test stand.     

高能摩擦副齿部啮合非线性冲击损伤新算法及疲劳寿命预测

重载车辆传动系统摩擦副在接合/分离过程中，摩擦片内齿与内毂外齿为啮合状态，由于动力输出的非平稳性，使得啮合齿部处于非线性高频冲击振动，其振动及冲击损伤特性将影响着传动系统的性能和使用寿命。为能正确预估高频冲击损伤对传动系统使用寿命的影响，对摩擦片齿部冲击碰撞应力变化规律和疲劳损伤理论的应用研究，提出了一种非线性冲击损伤计算的新算法。采用疲劳累积损伤原理和门槛值计算方法，分析了非线性冲击应力特性，引入了喷丸强化因子，并将代表当前损伤状态和应力状态对疲劳损伤发展影响的无量纲因子引进模型，得到了非线性冲击总损伤的数学模型。对摩擦副齿部进行了瞬态和稳态的应力试验测试，获得了1.5 mm齿侧间隙下10 s时间段的累积损伤值，利用新算法理论计算方法，推导了摩擦片全寿命周期总损伤值，获得了疲劳寿命预估值。经计算，其有效使用寿命周期为25.56 min。为对比不同边界条件下的损伤影响状态，对常用的不同齿侧间隙（0.75，1.25 mm）摩擦片齿部疲劳寿命进行了试验测试和总损伤值计算，分别获得了不同间隙条件下的使用寿命预估，其有效使用寿命分别为100.78，25.96 min。该方法能够通过实测应力状态，获得有效时间段累积损伤值，并通过计算，获得总损伤值及全寿命疲劳失效损伤的定量预估。该算法对摩擦片齿部高频冲击疲劳失效损伤的定量评价研究具有可操作的现实指导意义，也为进一步深入研究冲击碰撞损伤并准确量化研究奠定了理论基础。     

A review of dynamics modelling of friction wedge suspensions

Three-piece bogies with friction wedge suspensions are the most widely used bogies in heavy haul trains. Fiction wedge suspensions play a key role in these wagon systems. This article reviews current techniques in dynamic modelling of friction wedge suspension with various motivations: to improve dynamic models of friction wedge suspensions so as to improve general wagon dynamics simulations; to seek better friction wedge suspension models for wagon stability assessments in complex train systems; to improve the modelling of other friction devices, such as friction draft gear. Relevant theories and friction wedge suspension models developed by using commercial simulation packages and in-house simulation packages are reviewed.     

新型电控机械式自动变速器参数优化及性能研究（双语出版）

为解决传统电控机械式自动变速器（AMT）换挡过程中的动力中断问题,同时提高整车动力性与经济性,提出一种将行星机构安装在AMT输入端构成的新型自动变速器（N-AMT）,并对N-AMT基本结构进行详细介绍,同时就驻车、起步和换挡过程中行星机构工作模式进行详细分析。首先根据最大、最小传动比、挡位数和相邻速比的设计要求对N-AMT进行速比初步设计,然后结合AMT换挡和双离合（DCT）换挡各自特点,以动力性为约束,NEDC工况最佳燃油经济性为目标进行遗传算法速比优化设计。利用速比优化设计方法进行不同挡位N-AMT方案设计,并根据动力学关系建立整车模型,对N-AMT进行动力性与经济性分析。综合考虑不同挡位数方案的分析结果和变速器结构成本等因素,确定8挡N-AMT为最终设计方案。最后对8挡N-AMT进行台架、起步和顺序换挡试验。研究结果表明：8挡N-AMT的NEDC循环工况油耗为6.38 L·（100 km）^-1,较5挡AMT原型车工况油耗6.95 L·（100 km）^-1减少了8.86%;N-AMT可以有效消除部分挡位间动力中断的问题,在30%加速踏板开度下,8挡N-AMT的起步时间为1.55 s,较5挡AMT起步时间1.61 s减少了3.7%,整车动力性得到提高;N-AMT换挡时间保持在1.05 s以内,且换挡平顺性较好。     

双排行星齿轮机构在混合动力汽车上的应用研究

提出动力复合装置应用于混合动力汽车所应具有的功能,分析表明一种双排行星齿轮机构可以工作在混合动力汽车的多种工作模式下,建立此行星齿轮机构的动力学方程,基于ADVISOR进行仿真,仿真结果表明双排行星齿轮机构能有效的实现两种动力的复合。     

汽车齿轮修形的研究

由于汽车齿轮存在制造和安装误差，以及轮齿的弹性变形、扭转变形、热变表等因素，使齿轮在啮合过程中产生冲击、振动和偏载。通过研究与分析指出，汽车齿轮的修形可以改善汽车齿轮的传动。探讨了齿轮修形量的确定方法。     

曲轴齿轮静动载复合工况下弯曲应力及安全系数的计算

过盈装配的柴油机曲轴齿轮,其齿根部除承受工作应力外,还要叠加原始过盈装配应力。工作应力载荷源包括来自喷油泵、配气机构的脉动冲击载荷以及来自水泵、机油泵、发电机的持续载荷。通过对曲轴齿轮静、动载复合工况下齿根承载应力的综合计算,确定了该齿轮零件的弯曲疲劳强度安全系数,为柴油机曲轴齿轮的工程设计提供通用的设计思路及计算依据。     

一种摩擦式蜗轮箱介绍

介绍了平地机作业装置上用的一种摩擦式蜗轮箱,简述了它的工作原理及结构组成,以及与常规蜗轮箱的区别。这种蜗轮箱具有过载保护的功能,在硬土质或混合鹅卵石等较大硬质颗粒物的恶劣工况下更能突显出优势,能够延长作业装置寿命和提高整机可靠性。     

柴油机齿轮室总成异响分析与改进

针对某叉车柴油机齿轮室总成在常用工作转速条件下产生异响的实际问题,给出了基于连续小波变换的谱分析技术与有限元计算模态分析法相结合的方法对其异响进行分析研究。通过台架试验分析,提取了齿轮室总成异响与其激励源响应的时频相关特征,找到了引起异响的原因：齿轮室总成固有频率与柴油机宽带激励频率相吻合,产生了结构共振;通过有限元模型仿真分析,识别了不同装配条件下齿轮室总成的固有特性,确定了导致结构系统共振的薄弱环节。试验结果表明,通过增加齿轮室总成局部结构刚度,提高其固有频率,能消除齿轮室总成异响。     

Aircraft Landing Gear Dynamics: Simulation and Control

The landing gear is an inevitable system for the aircraft. It absorbs the energy of the landing impact and carries the aircraft weight at all ground operations, including take off, taxiing, and towing. Numerical simulation has become an invaluable tool for the assessment of landing gear dynamics as well as of aircraft/landing gear interaction. This paper gives an overview of the landing gear requirements and illustrates landing gear operational conditions, i.e., the shimmy problem, the dynamics at touch down and at ground roll. Furthermore, three software packages used in the simulation of aircraft ground dynamics are presented. A look at flight simulators and landing gear test facilities follows. Finally, the possible application of controlled landing gears is discussed.     

Dynamic analysis of spiral bevel geared rotor systems applying finite elements and enhanced lumped parameters

The dynamics of spiral bevel gears like most high-speed precision gears employed in motor vehicles and off highway equipments are substantially affected by the structural characteristics of the shafts and bearings. The lumped parameter model is one of the common tools applied to perform gear dynamic analysis. Even though the lumped parameter approach is computationally fast and conveniently efficient, it typically uses limited number of coordinates and may not fully account for the shaft-bearing structural characteristics accurately. In this analysis, the finite element formulation, that can generally represent more complete characteristics of the shaft-bearing assembly, is employed to enhance the current lumped parameter synthesis theory using the concept of effective mass and inertia elements. Computational output shows that the enhanced lumped parameter synthesis model is capable of predicting sufficiently accurate dynamic response when compared to the direct dynamic finite element calculations, and much more precise response than previous lumped parameter results, especially when the gear dynamics are associated with the pinion or gear bending modes. Even though this analysis focuses primarily on the spiral bevel geared rotor systems, the proposed methodology and analysis results can be easily extended to other types of gears.