Environmental assessment in the Prc: Third phase of the Qinhuangdao coal port

Abstract

The use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) is relatively recent in the People's Republic of China (PRC). China is committed to a reversal of the environmental degradation resulting from its industrialization and the central government has initiated a requirement for environmental planning and assessment for large development projects. Today large scale harbor developments are subject to the requirements of the National Environmental Protection Law (1979) and the Marine Environmental Law (1982). Because the third phase expansion of the coal port of Qinhuangdao would increase the ports’ capacity to handle coal by 30 to 50 million tons, an EIA was required.

Since 1981, the Environment and Policy Institute of the East‐West Center (EWC), Honolulu, has had a program of research focusing on the environmental impacts of coal transportation. On the basis of workshops in China that centered on the problems associated with planning coal transportation projects, the Ministry of Communications of the PRC invited the EWC to participate in the environmental assessment for the third phase coal port expansion at Qinhuangdao. A 10‐member team with specialities in environmental assessment and port environmental problems from five countries representing the EWC worked with a 25‐member team from four different agencies of the PRC Ministry of Communications.

This article describes the environmental regulations in the PRC that affect this harbor expansion, discusses the process by which the EWC assisted the PRC in the preparation of the environmental assessment and evaluates the assessment product against PRC regulations and U.S. standards. The most important contribution of the EWC was the provision of guidelines adapted from the EIA experience in several countries which will assist the PRC in the environmental evaluation of future pon expansion projects.     

Watergate village: A case study of a permit application for a marina submitted to the U.S. army corps of engineers

Abstract

Abstract This case study, prepared by an interdisciplinary group of several scientists and planners and a lawyer, reviews the handling by the decision process of an application to the Baltimore District Corps of Engineers for permission to construct a marina. The study determines that while the project in question may not present a significant environmental threat, the project when considered in conjunction with other pending projects on the same subtributary would contribute to boat congestion and degradation of water quality. Changes in the decision process are suggested which would facilitate consideration of the cumulative impacts from a series of coastal alterations.     

On a clear day in Ogunquit,Maine

Abstract

Winning a court case against a federal agency may seem to be the sweetest success for an environmental group, but losing litigation is not total failure. In the case of Ogunquit Village Corporation et al., vs. R. M. Davis the plaintiff lost the legal skirmish against the Soil Conservation Service, but in doing so significantly aided the struggle within the agency to implement more environmentally sensitive planning and engineering procedures. This paper describes the court case in terms of the Soil Conservation Service's procedural and policy responses including the agency's modus operandi and the internal paths/pitfalls involved with the implementation of visual resource management. The author also speculates as to the visual resource understanding of the evidence presented by the plaintiff and a possible but unstated visual basis for the original complaint.     

The long island response to the risks of outer continental shelf oil production

Abstract

The legal battles employed as a strategy to secure increased environmental safeguards identified by the technical studies demonstrate the role of public opinion in shaping federal actions. This article approaches the question of risk from OCS oil production activities by discussing the methodology developed to identify the probability of impact to the south shore of Long Island from the potential of an oil spill, either from drilling or transport activities. A set of probability curves were developed in accordance with seasonal climatic and current patterns in order to establish a range of hazard zones to enable the development of regulatory policy for the location and relocation of shipping lanes that would minimize direct impact to the near shore waters and coastline of Long Island.     

环境风险分析在港口规划环境影响评价中的应用

提出了适合于港口总体规划特点的环境风险评价的内容与模式,并通过在营口港总体规划环境风险分析中的应用,讨论了港口规划环境风险分析应注意的问题,认为港口总体规划的环境风险分析的重点在于最大可信事故的风险影响程度、范围与周边其它功能区及相邻敏感点的空间关系。     

Legal battles on the California coast: A review of the rules

Abstract

Notions of private property have both legal and political importance. In California, as elsewhere in the United States, these ideas are changing. The rate and direction of this evolution is not different on the coast. But the intense heat generated by competing coastal interests does tend to illuminate these issues more clearly on the coast. The full range of these issues has been raised in California, where an historic attempt is now being made to plan and manage the use of coastal resources. In January 1976 the California Legislature will be presented with a coastal plan which promises to inflame the passions of traditional property rights advocates and environmental zealots alike. Much of the rhetoric surrounding this political struggle is already being couched in legal terms. In an effort to delineate a few of the genuine legal issues raised in this planning process, this article summarizes the law of California which is relevant in defining the permitted scope of public regulatory power over private land use.     

Affordable housing in California's Coastal Zone: A tale of state authority vs. local autonomy

Abstract

This article examines the efforts of the California Coastal Commission to pursue simultaneously goals of environmental quality and affordable housing in the same state‐imposed regulatory program. The authors conclude that the Commission made substantial progress toward realizing both ends. However, the coastal body fell victim to its own successes, and housing was removed from its jurisdiction. As the Coastal Commission exercised its authority, opposition grew in strength and numbers. Key opponents included local government, which lost land‐use regulatory power to the Commission, the building industry, whose relationships with coastal localities were disrupted, and local property owners, whose land was restricted to uses other than the most profitable one.     

Inclusionary housing in the California coastal zone

Abstract

This article evaluates the performance of the California Coastal Commission's inclusionary housing program by examining: (1) the scope of the housing regulations, (2) initial permit decisions on residential projects, (3) the disposition of these permits overtime, and (4) the composition of completed projects and a best‐case projection of possible project completions. Using a case study of Southern California, factors affecting program success are discussed, including the effects of the various regulations, the availability of project subsidies, local government permit policies, and housing market fluctuations. The authors conclude that such state regulatory programs cannot be expected to succeed in urbanized coastal areas without incentives for developers and augmented state agency authority, superseding local land use controls.     

Support for Oregon land‐use planning: A multi‐level analysis

Abstract

This article analyzes support for and opposition to state land‐use planning in Oregon, using voting records from the 1976 referendum to repeal Oregon's regulatory legislation and survey data. Support for controlled growth legislation is found to be a product of both individual‐level characteristics and characteristics of the larger community where one resides. The most influential contextual variables are the county's economy and the class composition of the city. The authors conclude that coastal zone managers must exercise caution when interpreting individual survey data which indicate support for various environmental concerns. Contextual differences must be taken into consideration because sources of support for coastal zone management may vary among individuals, depending on the nature of the communities in which they live.     

Green port project scheduling with comprehensive efficiency consideration

ABSTRACT

Ports are an important driving force for world economic growth, but they consume considerable energy. The marine sector has proposed the development of green ports to achieve low-carbon sustainable development. This paper presents a green project scheduling model of port construction to optimize comprehensive economic and environmental efficiency. Various realistic constraints are considered, including investment scale, energy savings, emissions reduction, and project priority. Comprehensive efficiency involves cost reduction, energy savings, emissions reduction, and other efficiency goals. The problem is formulated as an integer program and is solved using CPLEX in a general algebraic modeling system (GAMS). We use a representative port in China as a case port in solving its green project scheduling. The results show that the port can save 6,527 tons of standard coal, reduce 40,875 tons of CO₂, and save 49 million yuan per year in the five-year implementation period. The payback in investing in these green projects is less than six years. From an economic and environmental perspective, the comprehensive efficiency achieved is significant.     

Examining stakeholder participation and conflicts associated with large scale infrastructure projects: the case of Tema port expansion project,Ghana

ABSTRACT

Balancing economic activities with socio-environmental considerations has become a global standard for the construction of large scale infrastructure projects, including ports. In this discourse, stakeholder participation and environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) have been stressed as important tools that can help port managers to co-create values, avoid conflicts and promote inclusive growth. Drawing on qualitative research tools and stakeholder theory, this paper explores whether and to what extent local stakeholders’ inclusion has substantial influence on addressing their socio-cultural concerns and interest. This is illustrated with a case study of an ongoing port expansion project at Ghana’s largest port of Tema. The findings suggest that although the port authority conducted an ESIA and engaged local stakeholders as part of the planning process, this did not translate into preventing the loss of valuable cultural resources of the local communities. The port authority did not place ‘value’ on cultural resources of the local communities that cannot be expressed in monetary terms. Further, lack of good faith engagement with local stakeholders led to conflicts in some cases that triggered a court action and delays. The paper concludes that stakeholder participation if not applied well, can become a ‘post-political’ tool.     

Impact of coastal construction on coral reefs in the U.S.‐affiliated pacific Islands

Abstract

During the past century, traditional ownership, control, and use of coral reef habitats in the U.S.‐affiliated islands in the Pacific have declined, exposing them to increased construction for plantation, transportation, military, urban, aquaculture, fisheries, mineral, and resort development. Dredging, filling, and other construction in coral reef and related ecosystems are expected to continue at high levels. Collectively, these activities have resulted in major adverse ecological impacts, many of which can be avoided or reduced to minor levels. Improvements in the design, siting, and construction of coastal projects can be accomplished by early integration of environmental objectives. Ecological baseline surveys; environmental impact assessments; regulatory conditions; guidelines and standards during construction; monitoring of construction; post‐construction evaluation; and long‐range research, planning, and management are among the most useful of the environmental tools to describe reefs and to identify measures to reduce or avoid adverse impacts on coral reefs.     

The confined disposal program for polluted dredged spoil in the great lakes

Abstract

Delay in the construction of containment sites is allowing time for significant adjustments in the confined disposal program of the Great Lakes. Through modification of the pollution criteria and improvements in harbor sampling, fewer containment sites, some with smaller capacities, are now required. Perhaps most important, the delays are providing additional time for upgrading waste treatment facilities which may be reducing future dredging volumes. Unless pollution abatement measures are implemented and technological improvements made regarding containment of the excess spoil water, cleanup of the harbors and connecting channels may not be fully accomplished during the 10‐year period in which containment sites are authorized.     

Hybrid urban transport systems in developing countries: Portents and prospects

Some South African cities have initiated public transport transformation projects which, in most cases, ultimately envisage the in toto replacement of paratransit operations with formalised BRT systems. There are two likely outcomes: (1) complex negotiations with existing operators and budget constraints will result in the in toto transformation occurring over an extended period of time; or (2) in toto transformation will simply not occur. In either case, cities will depend, for decades, on a ‘hybrid’ public transport system that combines both formal and paratransit operators. This paper presents a case for policy recognition of hybrid systems, and explores how such systems might best be managed. The following categories of hybrid public transport systems are explored through case studies: (1) transformative processes in which paratransit operators are to form or assimilate into companies to operate new services, but this incorporation has proved difficult to complete and the operational and regulatory frameworks remain unchanged; and (2) transformative processes that, from the outset, anticipated a hybrid system and designed the outcome accordingly. A third category of hybrid transport systems, defined as transformative processes that have been amended following a realisation that in toto transformation is unattainable, is also introduced and discussed. The paper concludes by tentatively drawing lessons for appropriate public transport regulation, particularly with respect to Cape Town's transformation project. It is argued that a review of the current national regulatory framework is required to enable possible project modifications that acknowledge system hybridity. It is suggested that regulatory frameworks that accommodate the likely hybrid nature of public transport system outcomes have greater prospects of success than frameworks that do not. Furthermore, it is argued that contextually appropriate and successful public transport transformation projects do not necessarily require the in toto substitution of incumbent paratransit operators, and that they can be integrated with, and complement, formal services.     

Policy and culture: The bristol bay case

Abstract

This paper deals with the difficulties of implementing legislation in non‐Western social and cultural contexts. The author presents an abbreviated case study of Alaska's effort to increase the economic returns of resident fishermen by restricting entry into state‐controlled fisheries. This paper examines how the implicit objectives of Alaska's Limited Entry Act of 1973 were effectively obstructed by the regulatory policy and by the implementation process. The paper focuses on the impact of this policy on Native Americans of Bristol Bay, Alaska, the site of the largest commercial fishery in Alaska and the world's largest salmon runs. Presented are some of the reasons several hundred natives were ultimately excluded from participating in the local commercial fishery.     

Cost-effectiveness assessment of CO2 reducing measures in shipping

International shipping is a significant contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and is under mounting pressure to contribute to overall GHG emission reductions. There is an ongoing debate regarding how much the sector could be expected to reduce emissions and how the reduction could be achieved. This paper details a methodology for assessing the cost-effectiveness of technical and operational measures for reducing CO₂ emissions from shipping, through the development of an evaluation parameter called the Cost of Averting a Tonne of CO₂-eq Heating, CATCH, and decision criterion, against which the evaluation parameter should be evaluated. The methodology is in line with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and with regulatory work on safety and environmental protection issues at the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The results of this study suggest that CATCH <50 $/tonne of CO₂-eq should be used as a decision criterion for investment in emission reduction measures for shipping. In total, 13 specific measures for reducing CO₂ emissions have been analysed for two selected case ships to illustrate the methodology. Results from this work shows that several measures are cost effective according to the proposed criterion. The results suggest that cost effective reductions for the fleet may well be in the order of 30% for technical measures, and above 50% when including speed reductions. The results of this study show that the cost effectiveness approach for the regulation of shipping emissions is viable and should be pursued in the ongoing regulatory process.     

Public opinion and the environment: Ecology,the coastal zone,and public policy

Abstract

In a public opinion survey conducted in Santa Barbara county, California, respondents were interviewed regarding their feelings on coastal zone development, within a context of broader environmental and political issues.

A high degree of expressed concern for the environment was found, but the data also indicate a widespread reluctance to allocate a greater share of personal income to improve environmental quality.

Among the issues dealt with are citizen views on environmental problems, the effectiveness of government in the environmental field, offshore oil drilling, and coastal zone development.

The results show that on each of the issues analyzed, a person's education, age, and the extent of his political participation are the major factors which determine his concern for the environment. Additional variables appear to have some significance in determining attitudes toward local environmental projects and perceptions of government.

Offered are implications of the findings for the future of organized action on environmental problems.     

Smaller ports’ evolution towards catalysing sustainable hinterland development

ABSTRACT

From simple organizations as gateways for goods and passengers, ports have evolved and transformed into complex organizational systems with multiple functions. Besides providing cargo, logistics, and other kinds of services to its customers, modern ports engage in the development of their hinterlands. Sustainability, evolving from environmental actions over the years, has become the core of many modern ports’ approach towards hinterland development and port competitiveness. While the literature is concerned with and presents examples of large ports implementing sustainability initiatives, the literature is scarce on smaller ports. This article addresses this gap by exploring qualitatively the case of the Port of Aalborg, a medium-sized port in Denmark, and its evolution towards using sustainability for port and hinterland development. The research focuses on the actions behind environmental development at the port. Its evolution is mapped and explored using the analytical framework developed based on the (larger) ports’ development and their roles. The findings from the Port of Aalborg case exemplify how smaller ports can evolve to drive the sustainable development of their hinterlands and contribute to a better understanding of this kind of port.     

Total oil spill costs and compensations

Although counteracting environmental programmes and policies have been strengthened, large oil spills still occur at irregular intervals. The total oil spill costs and their compensations have attracted much interest from various parties, such as local stakeholders, and state and federal governments. This paper addresses five major cost categories whose aggregations are expected to cover the overall direct and indirect costs after the release of an oil spill. Among them, research costs should not be neglected, since they tend to be high if public attention has been drawn to the case. Through an examination of the relationship between the total oil spill costs and their admissible claims, we found that:

1. admissible claims do not cover the overall costs of the oil spill, and

2. admissible claims cannot be compensated in full in the case of large spills.

Clearly, a sound oil spill contingency management aims to minimize both the environmental impacts of areas most at risk and the total oil spill costs. In this paper an economic model for measuring environmental damages following an oil spill is addressed and applied to the Prestige case which happened to be the worst oil pollution in the history of Spain. The model indicates how an ideally a priori economic evaluation may intuitively help managers to make informed as well as fast decisions in contingency cases.     

Quantifying anthropogenic shoreline modification of the Hudson River and Estuary from European contact to modern time

Abstract

Anthropogenic modifications to the shoreline of the New York Harbor estuary and the tidal portion of the Hudson River have been mapped and quantitatively assessed. Modifications studied include the filling of tidal salt‐ and freshwater marshes and the creation of fast land as well as dredging, shoreline armoring, and dike installation. Because the Hudson Estuary and River comprise a historically and commercially important harbor and waterway, shoreline modification commenced shortly after European colonization. While in the harbor segment of the estuary only about 20% of the original wetland areas remain today, the tidal Hudson River has seen a net increase in tidal freshwater wetland area of about the same magnitude resulting principally from shoreline railroad construction. Several different methods were used in compilation of the historical shoreline. Because determination of historical shorelines is important to public trust lands and to estuarine rehabilitation, data bases are being constructed incorporating those shorelines. The experience of this project suggests the benefits and problems associated with the techniques used.