Land use implications of sea level rise: A case study at myrtle beach,South Carolina

Abstract

the prospect of global warming and consequent sea level rise will have important implications for coastal communities. this article examines the land use implications of alternate sea level rise scenarios on the city of myrtle beach, south carolina. current trends as well as high and low sea level rise scenarios are superimposed on the city's beach profile and near shore contours to estimate the type and value of land development likely to be impacted.

It is found that losses associated with accelerated sea level rise would be particularly high in the city's hotel district and that overall property loss could range from 21 to 60% of the city's total property value. to lessen these potential losses, coastal communities such as myrtle beach must choose among one of three policy options including: (1) barricade the beach, (2) raise the land, and (3) implement a strategic retreat. specific alternatives within each of these options are explored in turn. the article concludes that successful development plans will incorporate ground rules sensitive to and consistent with dynamic coastal processes.     

The urban coast from a national perspective

Abstract

Viewing the urban coast from the national perspective one sees not only the sheer number and complexity of the federal programs involved but the lack of adequate coordination and the different often cross‐purpose missions. It goes without saying that to date, no one federal agency or program has been specifically charged with overseeing the urban coastal resource as an entity, nor is it likely that one will. However, national concern regarding various aspects of the urban coastal issues has been expressed. A very clear‐cut national interest has been constitutionally declared in navigation, defense, and interstate commercial activities, most of which affect the water area. A more diffuse though no less important national involvement can be traced through a number of federal activities which add up to considerable federal interest and investment in our urban coastal areas. Beginning in the early 1960s with waterfront related urban renewal activity for example the activities have accelerated more recently with such things as the administration's urban initiative, the Urban Recreation Study and the Urban Waterfront Study (HCRS), the Urban Parks and Recreation Recovery Program (HCRS), the Maritime Preservation Program (HCRS and NHT), public investment in harbor cleanup (EPA), shorefront access and planning (OCZM), special waterfront demonstration projects (OCZM), and the State Coastal Zone programs coming in line to mention a few. Building on the existing framework and growing enthusiasm there is an unexcelled opportunity to make incremental progress in creating a new and better urban environment by effectively managing this unique portion of the city—the urban waterfront.     

Western Australia's nonstatutory approach to coastal zone management: An evaluation

Abstract

Western Australia is fortunate that there have been few natural disasters on the coast. However, low levels of coastal erosion during the 1970s demonstrated the need to establish coastal zone management in that state of Australia. The erosion was quickly contained because private ownership to the high water mark is almost nonexistent, private property being set back behind coastal reserves along most of the coast. The provision of coastal reserves has been part of a deliberate nonstatutory coastal planning and management approach. As a result Western Australia has been able to use existing acts, coordination between existing government agencies, and coastal policies rather than enact specific coastal legislation to manage the coast.     

Small city waterfront restoration

Abstract

Redesign and reuse of waterfronts are a common experience today. Small cities presented with a deteriorating waterfront are faced with formidable economic and institutional impediments to their efforts to reverse the decline. This paper presents some design principles that if followed provide a framework for developing restoration plans. It also describes the efforts of the California State Coastal Conservancy to apply these principles to assist three small cities along California's coast to revitalize their waterfronts. Their experience indicates that in an era of limited budgets waterfront redevelopment can occur with substantial economic benefit where limited funds are applied to often small but crucial elements that result in creating waterside amenities.     

Israel's coastal program: Resource protection through management of land use

Abstract

Presently, much of Israel's 190‐kilometer‐long Mediterranean coast is either unoccupied, devoted to unsuitable uses, or is in use by activities which have no special need to be near the water's edge. This has resulted from years of lack of appreciation by policy‐makers of the coast as a valuable resource, of national development policies that directed attention to other regions, and of the relatively limited demand for coastal recreation.

In the last decade the importance of these factors has diminished. In turn, there is now mounting pressure for the development of coastal land. Increasingly, rising standards of living with a greater demand for recreational facilities, the growth of tourism as a major industry, and demands of the environmental lobby for conservation of part of the coastal land are factors bound to cause intensive change along the coast and to affect the quality of its resources. These trends have brought about public intervention in deciding the future of the coast. This paper reviews and analyzes Israel's coastal policy and its resource management programs, and also discusses the potential challenges to their full implementation.

Three types of programs were suggested as the main management tools: a coastal research and development effort, national coastal land use planning and pollution prevention, and monitoring and control programs. Major objectives of the programs were to be achieved through land use controls. Consequently, an important role is given in the development and implementation of the coastal program to agencies responsible for the management of physical land use planning and development.

Successful implementation of the management program, however, will depend on the ability of its administrators to coordinate the actions of many interests, on success in changing attitudes among decision‐makers as to the value of the coast, and on widening support for coastal resource conservation among a presently uninvolved public.     

Conservation and development in Oregon's coastal zone

Abstract

Coastal zone management in Oregon is based on the state's general land‐use law. This body of law is designed to deal with population increase, urbanization, and preservation of agricultural land, as well as with other problems throughout the state. Early planning and policy recommendations for the coast were in the hands of a commission having predominantly local membership. This commission produced an extensive series of studies, policies, and recommendations which were assembled as a proposed management tool for natural resources. Staff of the commission was then absorbed into the state land‐management agency, which developed final goals and guidelines for compliance with the Coastal Zone Management Act. Adoption of the coastal goals in December 1976 has triggered deadlines for local government compliance within the coastal zone. The management program is now undergoing federal review.     

Gender Issues within the Population-Environment Nexus in Philippine Coastal Areas

Sixty percent of the Philippine's population resides in the coastal zone. Women and men in coastal communities depend chiefly on the sea for subsistence. Over fifty percent of the dietary protein requirements of coastal communities are derived from municipal fisheries and shallow coastal habitats (reef fishes, marine plants, and mangroves). Coastal populations are young and expanding at rates that exceed regional and national averages. Expanding human pressures and man-made disturbances (over harvesting, destructive fishing, siltation, etc.) that offset natural processes are destroying habitats and creating protein food security crises and increasing malnutrition. At the same time conflicts among users of coastal resources are escalating. Access constraints, gender inequities, and cultural barriers stymie options for women and men to plan their families and create alternative livelihoods. National and local government agencies are addressing food security concerns through vertical policies and programs (e.g., fisheries management, integrated coastal management). The IPOPCORM project uses a cross-sectoral approach and quasi-experimental evaluation design to test the hypothesis that food security will be achieved more quickly when coastal resources management (CRM) and reproductive health (RH) management are implemented together. The purpose of this article is to review the project's experience and highlight the trends observed in program monitoring and evaluation during 2001–2004, which suggest better impact on RH, CRM, and gender indicators in the sites where the synergistic approach is being applied.     

Public opinion and the environment: Ecology,the coastal zone,and public policy

Abstract

In a public opinion survey conducted in Santa Barbara county, California, respondents were interviewed regarding their feelings on coastal zone development, within a context of broader environmental and political issues.

A high degree of expressed concern for the environment was found, but the data also indicate a widespread reluctance to allocate a greater share of personal income to improve environmental quality.

Among the issues dealt with are citizen views on environmental problems, the effectiveness of government in the environmental field, offshore oil drilling, and coastal zone development.

The results show that on each of the issues analyzed, a person's education, age, and the extent of his political participation are the major factors which determine his concern for the environment. Additional variables appear to have some significance in determining attitudes toward local environmental projects and perceptions of government.

Offered are implications of the findings for the future of organized action on environmental problems.     

Eilat: Multiple conflicts in an inherently uncertain environment

Abstract

Ports are often at the center of conflicts regarding the use of coastal areas and their management. Yet, it is often impossible to forecast the future development patterns of a port due to its dependence on shifting international relations and markets. Such inherent uncertainty complicates the management of coastal areas affected by the port. This article looks at how such a case is being addressed in Eilat, Israel's Red Sea port.

The development of Eilat's port has been a function of the changing geopolitical situation in the Middle East. At the same time it is in the center of a number of local conflicts involving the management and planning of Israel's Red Sea coast. Evaluation of the two alternatives proposed to address these conflicts is hampered by the inherent uncertainty regarding the port's growth patterns. The use of robust evaluation techniques is suggested as one way to address inherent uncertainties.     

Coastal land use under the impact of offshore oil development in Newfoundland: Some implications of public policy

Abstract

Offshore hydrocarbon exploration has been undertaken on Canada's Atlantic continental shelf since 1964. It is only recently, however, that the Hibernia find off the coast of Newfoundland has raised the possibility of the eventual production of oil. This article reviews the history of offshore exploration, comments on the locational significance of the Hibernia field, and analyzes the implications of the Newfoundland government's policies for affecting the location of onshore support facilities. A critique of these policies is placed within the context of coastal zone management and planning.     

Dynamics of Integrated Coastal Management: PEMSEA's Experience

The ultimate goal of integrated coastal management (ICM) is to improve the quality of life of coastal inhabitants through achieving the sustainable development objectives. Achieving this goal, however, is often hindered by policy and financial and capacity barriers. This article discusses the role of the interaction between the dynamic forces and essential elements of ICM to address the environmental and management issues at the local level. The experience of Xiamen Municipality, People's Republic of China, is highlighted to showcase how it transformed from an environmentally degraded municipality into a modern, urban garden city in a span of just more than a decade. The socioeconomic and ecological benefits of ICM in Xiamen are obvious, measurable, and well-appreciated by both the government and the citizenry. Useful lessons have also been drawn from several ICM initiatives in East Asia in relation to strengthening coastal management. The key ones are briefly discussed.     

The Sefton Coast Management Scheme: Project and Process

Abstract

The Sefton Coast Management Scheme in northwest England uses an area‐based project to achieve coordinated land management. It is founded on the ‘'Heritage Coast'’ model pioneered by the Countryside Commission where a ‘"Project Officer”; is employed to promote the Scheme and translate the aims into practical achievement. The Sefton Coast is described and a summary of British coastal planning policy precedes a detailed analysis of the Scheme. The Scheme is assessed with reference to practical management work, its success in competition for scarce financial resources, and the involvement of volunteers. It is established that the Project Officer is crucial to the success of the Scheme and that area‐based management can best be achieved through the local government planning process. Coastal planning needs now to be reviewed at national level to develop a policy for the whole coast using the experience of projects such as the Sefton Coast Management Scheme.     

Demographic indicators of the relative need for artificial reefs in Florida

Abstract

Artificial reef development involves pfonning from a number of perspectives including biological, océanographie, engineering, and social. This article reviews previous studies and identifies demographic variables that affect the use of artificial reefs by recreational anglers. An index of relative demand was created employing eight components: number of coastal county resident boat anglers, nonresident boat anglers, tourist boat anglers, nonboat anglers, number of fishing clubs, number of charter/party boats, number of registered pleasure boats, and the rate of county population growth. By comparing the magnitude of the index to the number of existing artificial reefs off of Florida's 35 coastal counties, an estimate of relative need was graphically portrayed on a state map. Indian River county on the Atlantic coast and Hernando, Hillsborough, Pasco, Citrus, Levy, Lee, and Charlotte counties on the central Gulf coast are the areas with the greatest demand relative to existing reef supply.     

Public involvement in offshore oil development: Lessons from New England

Abstract

Public perceptions of the risks and benefits of offshore oil development off the New England coast are examined. The influence of these perceptions on state policies toward federal actions is analyzed. A distinct trend of issue identification, critical analysis, consensus building, and state or regional action is observed. Throughout this interactive process between the region and the federal government, even though divergent state positions have evolved, there is a growing regional acceptance of coastal zone management concepts.     

Energy facility siting in the urban coastal zone: Compatible or not?

Abstract

Most federal and state coastal laws were framed with a distinct emphasis on preservation of rural/recreational areas. Yet in recent years a rural/urban coastal dichotomy has emerged. This has been especially prominent in the siting of energy facilities since these operations are often water dependent; power plants, for example, need huge amounts of cooling water, and offshore oil and gas extraction requires onshore support facilities. Recently, this issue has gained special prominence on the East Coast with the commencement of offshore oil and gas exploration. A case study was conducted in Hudson County, New Jersey, in New York harbor. In this area five oil‐related facility proposals were rejected from 1972 to 1976, primarily due to citizen opposition. Citizen activists now see the urban waterfront as a special place to which they want access and amenity uses rather than a continuation of past, almost exclusive industrial development. Hudson County citizens share the aspirations of those in several urban coastal areas which have experienced waterfront revitalization, including Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Detroit, New Haven, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle, and Toronto. Innovative siting which utilizes inland, rather than coastal, locations is suggested as one way to lessen urban/rural siting tensions.     

The opinions and attitudes of Louisiana's Coastal Zone residents toward outdoor recreational development: A perspective for planning and management

Abstract

In 1967, a new road facilitated access to a number of small, impoverished, rural communities in a marshy region along Mexico's Pacific coast. One of these—the only one situated on the Pacific shore—began to be visited by an increasing stream of tourists. This article discusses the severe sociocultural problems which the initial phase of tourism development caused in Teacapán, and argues that these are part of a syndrome which is manifest in similar situations worldwide. By anticipating this syndrome before tourism development gets underway, planners and managers of coastal tourism development in Third World nations would be better prepared to mitigate most of its severe effects.     

The social and political economy of coastal zone management: Shrimp mariculture in Ecuador

Abstract

The paper examines the applicability of First World CZM policy for the Third World by focusing on Ecuador's shrimp mariculture, an industry whose explosive growth has reshaped the coastal zone and generated problems threatening loss of the resource base itself. This has led to recognized need for CZM and movement by development agencies to transfer the CZ policies of developed countries. Against this background, the analysis explores local concepts of investment and conservation, the role of government and law, and the influence of the social economy on mariculture development. It illuminates how local use and management of coastal resources is inseparable from specifically Ecuadorean cultural concepts, institutions, and practices. This places in relief the salient differences between management in the First and Third Worlds, illuminating how coastal zone management must not only be internally consistent, but cognizant of and integrated into the prevailing social, economic, and political conditions.     

The urban port: A hidden resource for the city and the coastal zone

Abstract

This paper is concerned with the changing pattern of activity on the urban waterfront. It examines developments in marine transportation technology and in the economic structure of the central city that have influenced the function of the urban port. Drawing upon data related to the West Side of Manhattan, the impact of the changes in cargo and passenger ship operations on the urban port is described and analyzed. A twofold strategy for public agencies to identify and understand the opportunities presented by technological change and to formulate policies for the redevelopment of the urban coastal zone is discussed.     

Port administration and coastal zone management in Vancouver,British Columbia: A comparison with Seattle,Washington

Large North American ports are encountering serious management challenges. Surrounding communities, environmental interest groups, and government policy are focusing on protection and enhancement of public coastal amenities. In Vancouver, the federal port management system historically enabled national trade interests to override local and regional objectives at the discretion of port decison makers. In contrast, the Port of Seattle is administered at the local level, and legislation and policy require that local publics are involved in decision‐making. Recently, VPC established itself as the vanguard among Canada's major ports in the advancement of progressive management. Nevertheless, the adoption of new policies would ensure that Vancouver, and Canada's other ports, continue to be responsible leaders in Canadian coastal management. These policies include: federal, municipal, and provincial government representation on the local board of directors; strengthening community involvement; creation of a standing planning advisory committee; subjecting Canadian ports to the federal environmental assessment law; and adoption of explicit land and water use regulations.