Emergency Braking Control with an Observer-based Dynamic Tire/Road Friction Model and Wheel Angular Velocity Measurement

Summary A control scheme for emergency braking of vehicles is designed. The tire/road friction is described by a LuGre dynamic friction model. The control system output is the pressure in the master cylinder of the brake system. The controller utilizes estimated states for a feedback control law that achieves a near maximum deceleration. The state observer is designed using linear matrix inequality (LMI) techniques. The analysis shows that using the wheel angular speed information exclusively is not sufficient to rapidly estimate the velocity and relative velocity, due to the fact that the dynamical system is almost unobservable with this measurement as output. Findings are confirmed by simulation results that show that the estimated vehicle velocity and relative velocity converge slowly to their true values, even though the internal friction state and friction parameters converge quickly. The proposed control system has two main advantages when compared with an antilock braking system (ABS): (1) it produces a source of a priori information regarding safe spacing between vehicles that can be used to increase safety levels in the highway; and (2) it achieves a near optimal braking strategy with less chattering.     

A vehicle ABS adaptive sliding-mode control algorithm based on the vehicle velocity estimation and tyre/road friction coefficient estimations

A sliding-mode observer is designed to estimate the vehicle velocity with the measured vehicle acceleration, the wheel speeds and the braking torques. Based on the Burckhardt tyre model, the extended Kalman filter is designed to estimate the parameters of the Burckhardt model with the estimated vehicle velocity, the measured wheel speeds and the vehicle acceleration. According to the estimated parameters of the Burckhardt tyre model, the tyre/road friction coefficients and the optimal slip ratios are calculated. A vehicle adaptive sliding-mode control (SMC) algorithm is presented with the estimated vehicle velocity, the tyre/road friction coefficients and the optimal slip ratios. And the adjustment method of the sliding-mode gain factors is discussed. Based on the adaptive SMC algorithm, a vehicle's antilock braking system (ABS) control system model is built with the Simulink Toolbox. Under the single-road condition as well as the different road conditions, the performance of the vehicle ABS system is simulated with the vehicle velocity observer, the tyre/road friction coefficient estimator and the adaptive SMC algorithm. The results indicate that the estimated errors of the vehicle velocity and the tyre/road friction coefficients are acceptable and the vehicle ABS adaptive SMC algorithm is effective. So the proposed adaptive SMC algorithm can be used to control the vehicle ABS without the information of the vehicle velocity and the road conditions.     

基于集成式电液制动系统的主动制动压力精确控制方法

智能电动汽车的发展对制动系统的主动制动和再生制动能力提出了更高的要求。配备真空助力器的传统制动系统难以满足智能电动汽车的需求，因此逐渐被线控制动系统所取代。为提高线控制动系统的集成度与解耦能力，提出了一种新型集成式电液制动系统（Integrated Braking Control System，IBC），能够实现主动制动、再生制动、失效备份等功能。作为机-电-液耦合的高集成度系统，IBC具有复杂的非线性特性和动态摩擦特性，对制动系统压力的精确控制提出了挑战。为了提高IBC制动压力动态控制精度，提出了一种基于集成式电液制动系统的主动制动压力精确控制方法。首先，介绍了IBC的结构原理和控制架构。随后针对液压系统的迟滞特性和传动机构的摩擦特性进行建模与测试。然后基于系统的强非线性特性，提出了主动制动三层闭环级联控制器，其中压力控制层采用液压特性前馈与变增益反馈结合的控制策略，伺服层控制器设计考虑了机构惯性补偿与摩擦补偿，电机控制层采用矢量控制并进行了电压前馈解耦。最后，基于dSPACE设备搭建了硬件在环（Hardware-in-the-loop，HiL）试验台对主动压力控制方法进行验证。结果表明：所提出的压力控制方法能控制制动系统压力快速精确跟随期望压力，使动态压力跟随误差控制在0.4 MPa之内，稳态压力误差控制在0.1 MPa之内。     

模糊PID控制的电动汽车再生制动系统变换器的研究

提出了利用超级电容作为储能元件实现电动汽车再生制动的能量回收方案,分析了电动汽车控制系统的双向DC/DC变换器和电机驱动器的驱动降压电路、制动升压电路,设计了该控制系统的模糊自整定PID控制器。通过仿真研究表明,在车辆驱动降压变换时,模糊自整定PID控制的超级电容器在150 A左右的大电流放电情况下,超级电容仍能维持2.5 s的指定电压输出,车辆在额定功率下工作,通过降压变换,超级电容储存的能量迅速供给电机,有效提高了驱动电流,改善了起动及加速性能,有效增加了续驶里程。在制动升压变换时,模糊自整定PID控制的超级电容器电流基本跟随指令值上下波动,超级电容电压从120 V不断上升,使得该电容器的储能能力得到充分利用,实现了高水平的能量回收。     

电磁制动与摩擦制动集成系统测试台架设计及试验研究

根据电磁制动与摩擦制动集成系统的工作原理,设计了一种电磁制动与摩擦制动集成系统测试台架.为检验该测试台架的性能.以某型轿车为对象.选择电磁制动器的磁极与制动盘间间隙、线圈匝数和磁极中心到制动盘中心距离为因素.进行3因素3水平正交试验.试验结果表明,采用所设计的测试台架对不同车型进行试验,可得到电磁制动与摩擦制动集成系统的最佳结构参数和安装参数.     

Wheel slip control with torque blending using linear and nonlinear model predictive control

Modern hybrid electric vehicles employ electric braking to recuperate energy during deceleration. However, currently anti-lock braking system (ABS) functionality is delivered solely by friction brakes. Hence regenerative braking is typically deactivated at a low deceleration threshold in case high slip develops at the wheels and ABS activation is required. If blending of friction and electric braking can be achieved during ABS events, there would be no need to impose conservative thresholds for deactivation of regenerative braking and the recuperation capacity of the vehicle would increase significantly. In addition, electric actuators are typically significantly faster responding and would deliver better control of wheel slip than friction brakes. In this work we present a control strategy for ABS on a fully electric vehicle with each wheel independently driven by an electric machine and friction brake independently applied at each wheel. In particular we develop linear and nonlinear model predictive control strategies for optimal performance and enforcement of critical control and state constraints. The capability for real-time implementation of these controllers is assessed and their performance is validated in high fidelity simulation.     

Dynamics characteristics analysis and control of FWID EV

Compared with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, four-wheel-independently-drive electric vehicles (FWID EV) have significant advantages, such as more controlled degree of freedom (DOF), higher energy efficiency and faster torque response of an electric motor. The influence of these advantages and other characteristics on vehicle dynamics control need to be evaluated in detail. This paper firstly analyzed the dynamics characteristics of FWID EV, including the feasible region of vehicle global force, the improvement of powertrain energy efficiency and the time-delays of electric motor torque in the direct yaw moment feedback control system. In this way, the influence of electric motor output power limit, road friction coefficient and the wheel torque response on the stability control, as well as the impact of motor idle loss on the torque distribution method were illustrated clearly. Then a vehicle dynamics control method based on the vehicle stability state was proposed. In normal driving condition, the powertrain energy efficiency can be improved by torque distribution between front and rear wheels. In extreme driving condition, the electric motors combined with the electro-hydraulic braking system were employed as actuators for direct yaw moment control. Simulation results show that dynamics control which take full advantages of the more controlled freedom and the motor torque response characteristics improve the vehicle stability better than the control based on the hydraulic braking system of conventional vehicle. Furthermore, some road tests in a real vehicle were conducted to evaluate the performance of proposed control method.     

串联式复合电源再生制动系统恒流控制

再生制动技术可以有效回收车辆制动能量，是提高电动汽车续驶里程的重要途径，超级电容具有高功率密度、高效率的特点，利用蓄电池-超级电容组成的复合电源作为电动汽车的储能装置可以改善电池工作状态，提高电池寿命及可靠性，并提高能量回收率。目前使用复合电源（蓄电池-超级电容）进行再生制动的电动汽车多采用并联形式，针对此类状况，基于无源串联复合电源结构设计其再生制动系统，其主要由电机、超级电容组、整流桥和控制器组成。在控制策略上，采用电压反馈恒定电流制动方式，基于脉冲宽度调制（PWM）控制，在制动过程中根据电动汽车车速与超级电容端电压实时调节PWM的占空比以实现目标制动电流恒定。在MATLAB/Simulink平台上建立再生制动系统仿真模型，验证所提控制策略的有效性，并利用某电动汽车对所设计系统进行滑行、制动等试验。研究结果表明：相比有源并联式复合电源，该系统不需要DC/DC转换器，结构及控制简单，该系统能够较好地实现制动能量回收，所采用的控制策略能够有效地实现恒电流制动，电制动减速度稳定，同时具有较高的能量回收率。     

Nonlinear tire-road friction control based on tire model parameter identification

A hierarchical control structure is a more suitable structural scheme for integrated chassis control. Generally, this type of structure has two main functions. The upper layer manages global control and force allocation, while the bottom layer allocates realized forces with 4 independent local tire controllers. The way to properly allocate these target forces poses a difficult task for the bottom layer. There are two key problems that require attention: obtaining the nonlinear time-varying coefficient of friction between the tire and different road surfaces and accurately tracking the desired forces from the upper layer. This paper mainly focuses on longitudinal tire-road friction allocation and control strategies that are based on the antilock braking system (ABS). Although it is difficult to precisely measure longitudinal tire-road friction forces for frequently changing road surface conditions, they can be estimated with a real-time measurement of brake force and angular acceleration at the wheels. The Magic Formula model is proposed as the reference model, and its key parameters are identified online using a constrained hybrid genetic algorithm to describe the evolution of tire-road friction with respect to the wheel slip. The desired wheel slip, with respect to the reference tire-road friction force from the top layer, is estimated with the inverse quadratic interpolation method. The tire-road friction controller of the extended anti-lock braking system (Ext-ABS) is designed through use of the nonlinear sliding mode control method. Simulation results indicate that acceptable modifications to changes in road surface conditions and adequate stability can be expected from the proposed control strategy.     

Robust road friction estimation during vehicle steering

Automated vehicles require information on the current road condition, i.e. the tyre–road friction coefficient for trajectory planning, braking or steering interventions. In this work, we propose a framework to estimate the road friction coefficient with stability and robustness guarantee using total aligning torque in vehicle front axle during steering. We first adopt a novel strategy to estimate the front axle lateral force which performs better than the classical unknown input observer. Then, combined with an indirect measurement based on estimated total aligning torque and front axle lateral force, a non-linear adaptive observer is designed to estimate road friction coefficient with stability guarantee. To increase the robustness of the estimation result, criteria are proposed to decide when to update the estimated road conditions. Simulations and experiments under various road conditions validate the proposed framework and demonstrate its advantage in stability by comparing it with the method utilising the wide-spread Extended Kalman Filter.     

电动汽车复合制动控制研究现状综述

电动汽车复合制动由电机再生制动与机械摩擦制动两部分构成,其控制性能直接影响车辆的能量利用效率、制动安全性以及舒适性。围绕静态制动转矩分配控制、动态复合制动协调控制、制动换挡控制、智能辅助驾驶中的复合制动控制4个方面的研究现状与关键技术展开综述,并对复合制动控制未来研究方向进行了展望。对文献的梳理分析表明：制动转矩分配决定着复合制动系统能量回收能力与车辆制动稳定性,基于规则的分配策略面对复杂多变工况自适应性欠佳,而基于优化的分配策略各方面性能表现良好,但需要兼顾控制实时性与优化效果;利用电机响应迅速与控制精确的优势完成复合制动协调控制,能够提升制动模式切换过渡工况与紧急制动工况的控制性能,改善驾驶舒适性;制动过程中实施合理换挡可以进一步提升能量回收效率,同时通过补偿控制解决换挡过程中动力中断和转矩冲击等问题,保证换挡平顺性;随着电动汽车智能化和网联化发展,复合制动控制与驾驶人辅助系统相结合有助于在保证系统功能的同时实现能量回收效益最大化。     

基于非线性模型预测控制的车辆纵向队列协调控制

本文中针对基于分层控制结构的车辆队列上、下层控制缺少联系的问题,提出了车辆队列跟驰与个体车辆动力学稳定性协调控制的思路,其基本思想是在保证队列中个体车辆安全稳定行驶的同时,尽可能实现队列跟驰控制的目标。基于非线性模型预测控制(nonlinear model predictive control,NMPC)方法设计了车辆队列协调控制方案,设计了包括跟驰间距误差、跟驰速度误差以及车速与车轮圆周速度差3个子目标的优化目标函数,将队列跟驰与车辆动力学稳定性的协调控制转化为约束优化控制问题;基于序列二次规划(sequential quadratic programming,SQP)方法进行求解,得到车辆前、后轴的制动/驱动力矩来实现上层决策输出的期望跟驰加速度。基于由3车辆组成的非线性队列模型对控制方案进行了仿真分析,结果表明,所提出的基于NMPC的车辆队列协调控制策略可以在大范围操纵工况下,在保证车辆安全稳定行驶的基础上实现队列的跟驰控制。     

Safe Platooning in Automated Highway Systems Part II: Velocity Tracking Controller

This paper presents the design of a velocity tracking controller for safe vehicle maneuvering in Automated Highway Systems (AHS) in which traffic is organized into platoons of closely spaced vehicles. The notion of safety is related to the absence of collisions that exceed a given relative velocity threshold. In a companion paper, state dependent safety regions for the platoons are designed in such a way that, whenever the state of a platoon is inside these safety regions, it is guaranteed that platoon maneuvering will be safe and follow the behavior prescribed by the finite state machines that control vehicles maneuvers. Velocity profiles inside these safety regions are derived for all the single lane maneuvers and a nonlinear velocity tracking controller is designed to track these profiles. This controller attempts to complete the maneuvers with comfort in minimum time, whenever safety is not compromised. The control schemes presented in this paper were implemented and tested using AHS simulation software.     

汽车发动机减压缓速器离散控制系统的研究

对汽车发动机减压缓速器进行台架试验,并结合汽车参数对试验数据进行处理,结果验证了发动机减压缓速器能满足汽车在常见坡道上的制动要求。在此基础上,以汽车实际速度和加速度作为输入、发动机减压缓速器的挡位作为输出确定发动机减压缓速器的离散控制系统,并提出控制系统的控制策略,设计了控制系统的软硬件。在虚拟的多坡度道路上,计算实际车辆在发动机减压缓速器的辅助制动作用下的行驶过程,表明设计的离散控制系统可使汽车在预期目标速度下行驶,且行驶过程中加速度的变化量小,适合工程应用。     

Slip regulation for anti-lock braking systems using multiple surface sliding controller combined with inertial delay control

In this paper, a multiple surface sliding controller is designed for an anti-lock braking system to maintain the slip ratio at a desired level. Various types of uncertainties coming from unknown road surface conditions, the variations in normal force and the mass of the vehicle are estimated using an uncertainty estimation technique called the inertial delay control and then the estimate is used in the design of the multiple surface sliding controller. The proposed scheme does not require the bounds of uncertainties. The ultimate boundedness of the overall system is proved. The proposed scheme is validated by simulation under various scenarios of road friction, road gradient and vehicle loading followed by experimentation on a laboratory anti-lock braking set-up for different friction conditions.     

A model-based traction control strategy non-reliant on wheel slip information

A traction control system (TCS) for two-wheel-drive vehicles can conveniently be realised by means of slip control. Such a TCS is modified in this paper in order to be applicable to four-wheel-drive vehicles and anti-lock braking systems, where slip information is not readily available. A reference vehicle model is used to estimate the vehicle velocity. The reference model is excited by a saw-tooth signal in order to adapt the slip for maximum tyre traction performance. The model-based TCS is made robust to vehicle modelling errors by extending it with (i) a superimposed loop of tyre static curve gradient control or (ii) a robust switching controller based on a bi-directional saw-tooth excitation signal. The proposed traction control strategies are verified by experiments and computer simulations.     

Cooperative control for friction and regenerative braking systems considering dynamic characteristic and temperature condition

The braking system of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is composed of friction and regenerative braking system, meaning that braking torque is generated by the collaboration of the friction and regenerative braking system. With the attributes, there are two problems in the HEV braking system. First, rapid deceleration occurs due to dynamic characteristic difference when shifting the friction and regenerative braking systems. Second, the friction braking torque alters with temperature because the friction coefficient changes with the temperature. These problems cause the vehicle to be unstable. In this paper, the concurrence control and compensation control were proposed to solve these problems. And also, the concurrence control and compensation control were combined for the stability of the braking system. In order to confirm the effect of these control algorithms, the experiment and simulation were conducted. Consequently, it was confirmed that the control algorithm of this study improved the vehicle safety and stability.     

Vehicle Dynamic Control for In-Wheel Electric Vehicles Via Temperature Consideration of Braking Systems

?Vehicle dynamic control (VDC) systems play an important role with regard to vehicle stability and safety when turning. VDC systems prevent vehicles from spinning or slipping when cornering sharply by controlling vehicle yaw moment, which is generated by braking forces. Thus, it is important to control braking forces depending on the driving conditions of the vehicle. The required yaw moment to stabilize a vehicle is calculated through optimal control and a combination of braking forces used to generate the calculated yaw moment. However, braking forces can change due to frictional coefficients being affected by variations in temperature. This can cause vehicles to experience stability problems due an improper yaw moment being applied to the vehicle. In this paper, a brake temperature estimator based on the finite different method (FDM) was proposed with a friction coefficient estimator in order to solve this problem. The developed braking characteristic estimation model was used to develop a VDC cooperative control algorithm using hydraulic braking and the regenerative braking of an in-wheel motor. Performance simulations of the developed cooperative control algorithm were performed through cosimulation with MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim. From the simulation results, it was verified that vehicle stability was ensured despite any changes in the braking characteristics due to brake temperatures.