Use of GIS-Based Models for Integrating and Developing Marine Fish Cages within the Tourism Industry in Tenerife (Canary Islands)

Site selection is a key factor in any aquaculture operation, affecting both success and sustainability. Moreover, it can solve conflicts between different coastal activities, making a rational use of the coastal space. Geographical information systems (GIS) have become of increased significance for environmental planning and assessment mainly because of the need to compare a great number of spatially related data, and because it can be used to couple these spatial data with their attributes and overlay them. This study used GIS and related technology to build a spatial database using those criteria which were considered to have any influence in integrating marine fish-cage culture within the tourism industry in Tenerife. Criteria were grouped in three submodels (distance to beaches, nautical sports, and viewshed), which were combined to generate a final output showing the most suitable areas for cage culture development in coexistence with tourism. Most areas of the coastline of Tenerife were identified as being suitable (56%) or very suitable (46%), suggesting that marine cage aquaculture could be developed on the island in coexistence with the well-established tourism industry.     

A Race for Marine Space: Science,Values, and Aquaculture Planning in New Zealand

New Zealand (NZ) has developed a coastal management framework that includes large watersheds and territorial waters (out to 12 nautical miles). The article describes the developing conflicts associated with the biophysical and epistemological dimensions of expanding coastal marine space for aquaculture. We first review aquaculture policy in NZ, and recent evidence of the biophysical impacts from increasing terrestrial inputs on marine ecosystems. We provide a case study of conflict over a recent proposal to expand salmon aquaculture in the Marlborough Sounds, which covers some 4,000 km² of sounds, islands, and peninsulas. Based on information and data from interviews of stakeholders involved in the aquaculture planning, we describe three diverse epistemologies of science—client-based science, civic science, and Māori traditional ecological knowledge. We conclude the article with a critical review of how to better resolve spatial conflicts that often emerge in coastal management and planning.     

Social Acceptability of Aquaculture Development in Coastal Areas: The Case of Two Greek Islands

This article examines the acceptance of aquaculture development by residents and visitors of two islands, Cephallonia and Ithaki, in the Ionian Sea, in western Greece. Aquaculture farms have been established recently in both islands, and processing and packaging units in Cephallonia, generating jobs for the local communities and land rents for the villages in the coastal areas near the fish cages. However, the farms and processing and packaging units entail certain negative impacts on the environment. This study reveals that aquaculture farms have found better acceptance in Ithaki, where aqua culture is a form of development suited to this remote, small, predominantly rural island. The degree of acceptability is higher for locals than for tourists, but also for islanders who do not live in the areas where the processing units are situated. Respondents who consider the pollution of the marine environment by the farms to be high, mostly locals and residents of the villages in the vicinity of the aquaculture infrastructure or the main cities in the islands, are more likely to express a negative attitude toward aquaculture and its further development.     

Examining Residents’ Proximity,Recreational Use,and Perceptions Regarding Proposed Aquaculture Development

Competing interests related to marine resources have the potential to create conflict in the coastal zone. In many parts of the world marine farms exist in close proximity to areas that support recreation and tourism. The purpose of this study was to examine residents’ perceptions of proposed marine farm development related to their proximity to, and recreational use of, a coastal area in New Zealand. Residents from two areas were surveyed about their recreational use of the region and about perceptions related to marine farm development. Results indicated that those living closest to proposed marine farms used the area more often and in different ways, were most sensitive to marine farm development, and were less positive in their evaluations of marine farms, despite agreeing that marine farms can have positive economic consequences for nearby communities. Implications for using stakeholder input for the planning and management of marine farms are discussed.     

Detecting and Managing Coastal Fisheries and Aquaculture Gear Using Satellite Radar Imagery

Fishing and shellfish aquaculture are important sources of income for coastal communities in Thailand and other parts of tropical Asia, but environmental impacts associated with these small-scale activities can effect water quality, nearshore habitats, and fish populations. The management of coastal fisheries and aquaculture has, therefore, become a major concern for government fisheries officials who are searching for cost effective measures to improve the regulation of these sectors. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from the RADARSAT-1 satellite were acquired to determine if stationary fishing and aquaculture gears within a coastal study site in the Upper Gulf of Thailand could be identified, and if automatic signature separation of gear types was possible. The use of SAR imagery for a coastal monitoring application was also evaluated and the potential of this technology to improve resource management outcomes considered.     

A Spatial Analysis of Fish Farming in the Context of ICZM in the Bay of Izmir-Turkey

Cage fish farming is one of the fastest growing food industries, both worldwide and in Turkey. There are growing concerns about the manner of resolving the competing claims for the use of limited coastline and water body space. Matters connected with the siting of fish farming increase the need for the integrated coastal zone planning of aquaculture. This should be undertaken in collusion with other coastal stakeholders and with the cooperation of the government ministries that promote and regulate aquaculture development. In this study the integration and coexistence of fish farms is evaluated in the context of other activities in Izmir Bay. This study shows how different terrestrial and marine activities interact with each other, and that certain areas are subject to layers of multiple usages. One of the major sea users of the Bay, for example, is the fishery sector, which utilizes 850.4 km² of a total surface area of Izmir's Bay of 960.4 km². This overlaps with the 113.4 km² that are used by marine transportation. Military zones encompass 63.1 km² and fish farming utilizes only 1.23 km². This study uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to build a spatial database that analyzes conflicting claims for integrating fish farming with other claimants. Clearly planned and properly managed fish farming development should be undertaken within a broader framework of integrated coastal zone management.     

Spatially Prioritizing Seafloor Mapping for Coastal and Marine Planning

Coastal and marine areas provide vital services to support the economic, cultural, recreational, and ecological needs of human communities, but sustaining these benefits necessitates a balance between growing and often competing uses and activities. Minimizing coastal zone conflict and reducing human-induced impacts to ecological resources requires access to consistent spatial information on the distribution and condition of marine resources. Seafloor mapping provides a detailed and reliable spatial template on the structure of the seafloor that has become a core data need for many resource management strategies. The absence of detailed maps of the seafloor hinders the effectiveness of priority setting in marine policy, regulatory processes, and marine stewardship. For large management areas, the relatively high cost of seafloor mapping and limited management budgets requires careful spatial prioritization. In order to address this problem, a consensus based approach, aided by decision-support tools, and participatory geographic information systems (GIS), was implemented in Long Island Sound to spatially prioritize locations, define additional data collection efforts needed, and identify products needed to inform decision-making. The methodology developed has utility for other states and regions in need of spatially prioritizing activities for coastal planning, and organizations charged with providing geospatial services to communities with broad informational needs.     

Coastal Tourist Interest in Value-Added,Aquaculture-Based,Culinary Tourism Opportunities

Despite increasing focus on sustainable aquaculture investment in the U.S. coastal zones, the aquaculture industry continues to face skepticism among consumers due to perceived negative environmental impacts, and health and food safety concerns. Partnering with culinary tourism and local food promotion efforts has potential for improving public outreach about the benefits of aquaculture, especially in coastal destinations where sustainable marine aquaculture and tourism are both occurring. Culinary tourism implies that local foods reflect the local livelihood and culture, and may be important to the tourist's experience. Aquaculture is becoming increasingly valuable to coastal destinations for assuring the steady availability of local seafood to meet demand and retaining commercial fisheries as a means to differentiate themselves to tourists. This study examined the role of subjective knowledge and attitude about aquaculture, and their effect on intention to participate in value-added culinary aquaculture tourism experiences. The study found that tourists' subjective knowledge and attitude about aquaculture influenced intentions to participate in culinary aquaculture tourism. In order for farmers or tour operators to be successful in diversifying with value-added culinary aquaculture, attention needs to be paid to educating consumers, which may be possible through strategic partnerships with tourism organizations, chefs, and restaurants.     

Improving the coexistence of offshore wind farms and shipping: an international comparison of navigational risk assessment processes

The continued growth and evolution of the offshore wind industry, and the emergence of other novel marine uses such as wave and tidal generators, have upped the ante for spatial planners, as well as consenting and approval authorities in various coastal states. These stakeholders rely on processes such as navigational risk assessments (NRAs) to balance safety and efficiency requirements and to make optimal decisions over use of space. Given the increasingly complex and crowded seascape, however, there are some apprehensions about potential shortcomings in these NRA processes. There is also some concern that these inadequacies may lead to unsafe or inefficient marine spatial use. To understand how NRA processes can be improved further, a literature review is conducted, followed by a survey of respondents who are involved in the planning, consenting and/or approval of offshore wind farms across seven different countries. A summary of the NRA processes in these seven countries is presented, and several shortcomings are identified. Based on the findings of the survey, a list of recommendations is presented to enhance existing NRA processes—and to improve the coexistence of shipping and offshore wind farms (OWFs).     

Mussel and Seaweed Cultivation in Offshore Wind Farms: An Opinion Survey

German coastal regions and adjacent offshore waters are claimed for a variety of different, and often overlapping, uses. Conflicts of interest are expected to increase due to the planned construction of offshore wind farms. The development of an integrated approach combining different commercial activities, such as open ocean aquaculture and wind farming, could be a possible solution to overcome these conflicts. To illuminate existing perception and opinions on this multiple-use idea, this study examines the attitudes of representatives of eight different actor groups toward potential offshore wind farm–mariculture integration in the German North Sea. Results from our questionnaire survey show that the respondents’ attitudes toward the suggested multiple-use setting seem to be largely influenced by their general opinion toward offshore wind farms. The Fisheries actor group differs from the other questioned groups in that negative attitudes are overall predominant. This case study points to the need for a credible mechanism that more successfully integrates key actor groups, such as fisheries, into future planning and research issues.     

The Decline of the Artisanal Fisheries in Mediterranean Coastal Areas: The Case of Cap de Creus (Cape Creus)

This article examines the sociocultural, economic, and environmental causes of the decline of the artisanal fisheries in the rocky coast of Cape Creus (NW Mediterranean) over the past decades. The changes that have occurred over time have favored trawlers, purse-seiners, shellfish fisheries, and tourism activities, to the detriment of artisanal fisheries. This article shows that the establishment of a marine reserve in 1998 could not reverse the observed decline in the artisanal fisheries. This raises the necessity of implementing a fishery management plan integrated into a coastal management plan, which should accompany the habitat protection. These plans could assist in the maintenance and the sustainable development of the artisanal fishing sector in Cape Creus as well as in other Mediterranean coastal areas where artisanal fisheries are also declining.     

Sustainable Governance of Norwegian Aquaculture and the Administrative Reform: Dilemmas and Challenges

This article discusses the impact of the Norwegian government's administrative reform on the management of the Norwegian aquaculture industry and coastal areas. The 2010 reform of government administration strengthened the County Councils’ role in issues of aquaculture at the expense of the regional offices of the Directorate of Fisheries. The aim of the reform was to increase self-governance through decentralization. However, international trends in coastal zone and marine resource management are moving in the opposite direction, aiming at more integrated and ecosystem-based approaches involving the management of larger, rather than smaller, geographic regions. This article examines the possible effects of this reform in light of the move from government to governance, and in the context of a broad policy shift toward a more integrated, ecosystem-based management (EBM) of the coastal zone. Based on insights from multi-level and coastal zone governance debates, we argue that an unintended consequence of the Norwegian administrative reform could be increased fragmentation of the aquaculture governance system, as well as a reduced capacity to implement EBM-related measures. At the same time, the reform might improve coastal zone planning, although a further step toward integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) would require a greater delegation of authority to the County Councils.     

Gender Issues within the Population-Environment Nexus in Philippine Coastal Areas

Sixty percent of the Philippine's population resides in the coastal zone. Women and men in coastal communities depend chiefly on the sea for subsistence. Over fifty percent of the dietary protein requirements of coastal communities are derived from municipal fisheries and shallow coastal habitats (reef fishes, marine plants, and mangroves). Coastal populations are young and expanding at rates that exceed regional and national averages. Expanding human pressures and man-made disturbances (over harvesting, destructive fishing, siltation, etc.) that offset natural processes are destroying habitats and creating protein food security crises and increasing malnutrition. At the same time conflicts among users of coastal resources are escalating. Access constraints, gender inequities, and cultural barriers stymie options for women and men to plan their families and create alternative livelihoods. National and local government agencies are addressing food security concerns through vertical policies and programs (e.g., fisheries management, integrated coastal management). The IPOPCORM project uses a cross-sectoral approach and quasi-experimental evaluation design to test the hypothesis that food security will be achieved more quickly when coastal resources management (CRM) and reproductive health (RH) management are implemented together. The purpose of this article is to review the project's experience and highlight the trends observed in program monitoring and evaluation during 2001–2004, which suggest better impact on RH, CRM, and gender indicators in the sites where the synergistic approach is being applied.     

Aquaculture siting issues in Washington's coastal zone

Abstract

Greater commitments of aquatic resources are required as aquaculture activities expand and intensify. At the same time, increasing recreational and residential uses of the coast are placing other demands on many of the same resources. Multiple use disputes are arising and conflicts are intensifying. This paper is a problem analysis based on recent public debates in the state of Washington which surrounded the mechanical harvest of clams, raft culture of mussels, and pen rearing of salmon. Subjects of potential conflict are shown in the questions of continuing the subtidal harvest of geoducks, raft culturing of marine algae for food and chemical extracts, and continuing the use of public nearshore aquatic areas for private oyster farming. This report also suggests that better coastal management techniques need to be developed which address: (1) how environmental impacts and risks are determined; (2) how claims for esthetic quality can be evaluated and measured; and (3) which methods can be used to plan for the aquatic areas which recognize the special features of the aquatic areas.     

Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage Impact Assessments in China

Abstract

During the past decades, the number of coastal and marine construction projects has multiplied in China, posing a serious threat to underwater cultural heritage in its waters. In contrast, there are few rules dealing with underwater cultural heritage impact assessment which has not yet become a mandatory procedure in various coastal and marine construction projects. With China putting forward the Belt and Road Initiative, the conflicts between the protection of underwater cultural heritage and the need of various coastal and marine construction projects might become more frequent. Chinese legislation in this domain, undergoing important revision, intends to establish a mandatory procedure of proactive archeological investigation. This revision could have a great influence on the protection of underwater cultural heritage as well as the coastal and marine construction projects in China but the relevant provisions are still far from satisfactory. The present study will review the current Chinese legislation concerning the impact assessment of marine or coastal construction projects on underwater cultural heritage and explore the possibility for further improvement at the legislative level.     

Modeling Coastal and Marine Environmental Risks in Belize: the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS)

The livelihood of coastal communities is directly linked to the health of intertidal and marine ecosystems. Coastal zones and marine areas are rapidly changing and highly vulnerable to impacts from climate change, accelerating human development, and over-fishing. Quality of life and the benefits of coastal development can be greatly enhanced, and costs minimized, by projecting and comparing alternative policy outcomes before management decisions are made. This article describes the Marine Integrated Decision Analysis System (MIDAS), an interactive decision support tool designed to assist the users and managers of Belize's system of marine management areas (MMAs) in understanding the interactions among various ecological, socioeconomic, and governance conditions in a spatially explicit manner. MIDAS can simulate and visualize the likely effects of alternative management strategies and therefore provides an important tool for evaluating potential scenarios. We developed two MIDAS modules to address specific threats in Belize –spatial risk resulting from mangrove deforestation in coastal areas and the potential effect of an oil spill off the coast of Belize. Workshops conducted in Belize indicate that diverse user groups such as fishers, tourism operators, and public environmental agencies can successfully utilize MIDAS to understand MMA outcomes, and environmental risks.     

Natural Coast Protection and Use in China: Implications of Resource Protection “Redline” Policies

A significant proportion of China's coast has been developed for aquaculture, salt industry, ports and harbors, industry, reclamation, and so on. The stated target, of keeping at least 35% mainland coast in natural status until 2020, in the National Marine Functional Zoning Plan (2011–2020) is unlikely to be realized. This article analyzes the current protection and utilization of mainland coast and discusses effects of coastal over-development. The use of the “redline” policy in natural resources protection, including forests, cultivated land, freshwater and marine ecology is reviewed, and the “redline” policy is advised to be adopted in natural coast protection through such measures as total length control, buffer zones, regional control, inter-region engagement, and efficient artificial coastal areas use and restoration.     

Ecological sustainability of the South Australian coastal aquaculture management policies

Coastal aquaculture in South Australia has been going through a period of unprecedented growth during the past seven years. The value of the South Australian aqua‐culture industry has increased from US$1.3 million in 1990–1991 to an estimated US$31 million in 1996–1997. This growth has led to the implementation of planning and management policies by the state government. South Australian coastal waters have been divided into regions, and regional aquaculture management plans have been prepared. These management policies have generated concerns among interest groups and the community. The recent coastal aquaculture planning and management policies are described and analyzed, focusing on their contribution to the development of an ecologically sustainable industry. The need for an integrated approach to management is emphasized, especially given the great interest of the state government on the development of the industry.     

Management of corals and coral ecosystems in the United States

Abstract

Corals and coral communities provide substantial societal benefits by virtue of their recreational and esthetic appeal, the habitat provided for commercially harvested fish and shellfish, the structural foundation provided for productive coastal ecosystems, and the market value of harvested coral specimens. Coral resources are subject to adverse effects from pollution, dredging, specimen collecting, anchor damage, commercial fishing, overharvesting, and activities related to offshore petroleum development. Management programs which protect coral resources in the United States comprise a patchwork of separate federal and state programs. They attempt to adapt broad regulatory authorities for parks, fisheries, offshore mineral resources, and other subjects for the purpose of coral conservation. These programs embody species‐specific, area‐specific, and generic approaches to coral management. This paper traces the evolution of U.S. coral management programs and comments on their respective strengths and weaknesses. Alternative approaches for strengthening management systems could include new coordinating committees, legislation, memoranda of agreement between involved agencies, and others.     

Factors Controlling the Development of the Aquaculture Industry in New Zealand: Legislative Reform and Social Carrying Capacity

The New Zealand aquaculture sector, consisting of mainly mussel, oyster, and salmon farmers, has been expanding over the last two decades. The increasing demand for water space for marine farming has prompted a process of community consultation and legislative reform resulting in the Aquaculture Reform Act 2004. Despite efforts to develop more effective legislation and improve the application process, marine farmers have often been relatively unsuccessful at gaining the water space that they desire for the expansion of the industry. However, social factors such as landscape and amenity values, recreational and navigational use, and alienation of public space are the most frequently cited reasons for the refusal of marine farm consent applications. An analysis of resource consent decision records from the past decade demonstrates this conclusion that the main factor limiting the further expansion of the aquaculture industry in New Zealand is the social carrying capacity, in the context of a period of legislative transition.