Tragedy of the San Francisco bay commons

Abstract

Although the early efforts to save San Francisco Bay in the 1960's provided the role model for protection of California's 1100 mile ocean coastline, neither Proposition 20 of 1972 nor the California Coastal Act of 1976 provided any benefits to San Francisco Bay. One result is that the Bay is locked into its urban, shoreline‐use dominated plan of 1969 while every other estuary and coastal wetland in California receives much stronger protection of its resources. Furthermore, due to the complexity of California's water laws, there is no instream flow protection for receiving waters such as San Francisco Bay. This is particularly critical considering that 70% of the Bay's freshwater inflow has been diverted. The Bay's present decline as the largest and most important estuary on the West Coast, as well as its possible death as an estuary, may be irreversible. The problem requires the immediate attention of engineering, scientific, economic and legal disciplines if San Francisco Bay is to be saved.     

Lessons Learned from Lake Shiwha Project

The Lake Shiwha Project was planned in the late of 1980s about 10 years before establishing ICZM policy and wetland conservation policy in Korea. The project was to build a dike of 12.7 kilometers in the mouth of a estuary, thereby to keep freshwater instead of brackish in the lake and to create land of 110 square kilometers for agriculture and industrial complex by draining out of associated wetland. However the Korean government abandoned keeping freshwater in the lake as soon as completing the dike because of not being able to control of serious pollution in the lake. This article analyzes the characteristics of the project such as bias of feasibility, degree of transformation and time period of loss of goal that led into environment disaster and extracts some implications for lessons.     

一线模型在黄河口岸线预报中的应用

建立了一种能够模拟黄河口海洋与河流混合动力作用模式下黄河口岸线淤积、延伸、侵蚀规律的一线数学模型。采用了反映岸线侵蚀重要因素的波浪破碎模型,并引入黄河径流挟带泥沙沿岸输沙率分布计算,不但提高了波浪计算的精度,也真实反映了黄河口门附近岸线演变现象的物理机制。研究结果表明,黄河口径流挟带的大量泥沙受到水流动力轴线影响,泥沙沿岸线的淤积是黄河口门附近岸线演变的重要因素之一。验证试验表明,模型计算结果与实测值吻合很好,可以用于黄河口岸线演变的预报计算。     

长江南京以下12.5 m深水航道一期工程白茆沙水道工程局部冲刷试验研究——Ⅰ：模型设计

长江南京以下12.5 m深水航道一期工程白茆沙水道工程局部冲刷研究工作表明:1)采用局部正态模型研究潮汐河口工程局部冲刷问题是可行的;2)试验水力条件的选择、模型边界的确定以及模型的整体变坡等是将局部正态模型应用于潮汐河口工程局部冲刷问题研究需解决的关键技术问题;3)白茆沙水道工程局部正态模型较好地复演了目标试验水力条件,具备开展进一步试验的条件;4)提出了简便易行且效果良好的模型边界确定方法。     

Boundaries of the coastal zone: A survey of state laws

Abstract

A survey of coastal state legislation reveals several types of statutes affecting activities occurring in coastal regions: Coastal management statutes, wetland statutes, and shoreline statutes. Each coastal state has adopted methods to delineate coastal areas or features, whether an entire coastal zone, a limited feature such as wetlands, or shorelands. Boundary delineation is done according to linear measurements, political boundaries, roads and highways, vegetation, elevation, tidal flow, and other factors. An appendix is provided containing state statutory provisions relating to boundary‐delineation techniques.     

Editor's note on the comments from Eugene P. Odum,Howard T. Odum,Leonard Shabman,and Sandra Batie

Abstract

It was pointed out in a recent article on shorelines management in France that no overall coastal management legislation in that country exists.¹ Nevertheless, certain existing legislation has been adapted to take account of the peculiarities of the shoreline and coastal zone, and new institutions such as the “Shorelines Trust”; have been created.² As is the case with most countries in the Western world, the processes of urbanization, industrialization, and recreational development place tremendous pressure on shoreline use. Resulting conflicts are sometimes difficult to solve unless adequate institutional frameworks exist. Some form of institutional change is thus inevitable.     

Coastal Erosion in Ghana: Causes,Policies, and Management

Coastal erosion is a serious problem that affects the safety and livelihoods of many coastal dwellers along Ghana's coast. Despite the fact that coastal erosion is a natural phenomenon, erosion trends have been largely aggravated by human-induced factors. This study analyzed shoreline change rates for three neighbouring coastal communities in the Central region of Ghana; Elmina, Cape Coast and Moree. Two epochs were analyzed, 1974–2012 (medium-term) and 2005–2012 (short-term), using ArcGIS and Digital Shoreline Analysis System. Overall, the entire study area recorded average shoreline change rates of ?1.24 myear^?1 and ?0.85 myear^?1 in the medium-term and short-term period respectively. Less consolidated shoreline segments recorded higher erosion rates in both periods while cliffs and rocky segments experienced very little erosion or high stability. Because shorelines undergoing chronic erosion do not fully recover after short-term erosion events such as storms, facilities located close to such shorelines are threatened. Taking a proactive approach to coastal erosion management, such as coastal sand mining prevention, inter-sectoral land use management and adopting a construction setback approach may be prudent for the long-term management of the coast since this recognizes future shoreline changes and safeguards coastal landscape for other uses.     

洋山深水港西港区岸线功能规划调整

为满足洋山深水港生产营运需要,有关部门希望保留颗珠山—蒋公柱潮流汊道,这与总体规划布置不一致。为此需进行深水港西港区岸线功能规划调整研究。考虑到汊道的颗珠山一侧潮流具有岬角绕流型特点,而蒋公柱一侧有岬角环抱型特点;在此认识基础上针对多种岸线方案进行试验。试验结果表明,采用岸线优化方案后,可以保持甚至改善汊道内和已建港区潮流条件。从水流角度看,采取合理的岸线布置和适当的工程措施后,保留和开发利用颗珠山—蒋公柱潮流汊道是可行的。     

对长江潮区界与潮流界的研究

长江感潮河段长达上千公里,半日潮波自河口溯江而上可直抵安徽安庆以上。在这一河段内,以潮区界划分有潮与无潮区,以潮流界划分水流特性转变区,因此,它们位于何处,对于该地区的经济开发、农业规划、生态环境、航行交通、航道工程、港口建设、航行安全与科学发展等关系密切,意义重大。根据实地调查及其收集的大量资料,经数值模拟与调和分析,皆与实测资料验证,取得重要成果:长江潮区界位于安庆与南京之间,潮流界位于镇江与江心沙之间。但是,这一新概念与传统概念迥然不同,即一般认为,长江潮区界位于安徽铜陵与芜湖之间,而潮流界位于江阴以下。     

Asymmetry of Columbia River tidal plume fronts

Columbia River tidal plume dynamics can be explained in terms of two asymmetries related to plume-front depth and internal wave generation. These asymmetries may be an important factor contributing to the observed greater primary productivity and phytoplankton standing crop on the Washington shelf. The tidal plume (the most recent ebb outflow from the estuary) is initially supercritical with respect to the frontal internal Froude number F_R on strong ebbs. It is separated from the rotating plume bulge by a front, whose properties are very different under upwelling vs. downwelling conditions. Under summer upwelling conditions, tidal plume fronts are sharp and narrow (< 20–50 m wide) on their upwind or northern side and mark a transition from supercritical to subcritical flow for up to 12 h after high water. Such sharp fronts are a source of turbulent mixing, despite the strong stratification. Because the tidal plume may overlie newly upwelled waters, these fronts can mix nutrients into the plume. Symmetry would suggest that there should be a sharp front south of the estuary mouth under summer downwelling conditions. Instead, the downwelling tidal plume front is usually diffuse on its upstream side. Mixing is weaker, and the water masses immediately below are low in nutrients. There is also an upwelling–downwelling asymmetry in internal wave generation. During upwelling and weak wind conditions, plume fronts often generate trains of non-linear internal waves as they transition from a supercritical to a subcritical state. Under downwelling conditions, internal wave release is less common and the waves are less energetic. Furthermore, regardless of wind conditions, solition formation almost always begins on the south side of the plume so that the front “unzips” from south to north. This distinction is important, because these internal waves contribute to vertical mixing in the plume bulge and transport low-salinity water across the tidal plume into the plume bulge.F_R and plume depth are key parameters in distinguishing the upwelling and downwelling situations, and these two asymmetries can be explained in terms of potential vorticity conservation. The divergence of the tidal outflow after it leaves the estuary embeds relative vorticity in the emerging tidal plume water mass. This vorticity controls the transition of the tidal plume front to a subcritical state and consequently the timing and location of internal wave generation by plume fronts.     

Impact of freshwater on a subarctic coastal ecosystem under seasonal sea ice (southeastern Hudson Bay, Canada). I. Interannual variability and predicted global warming influence on river plume dynamics and sea ice

Analysis of sea ice cover, runoff and air temperature observations in Hudson Bay shows marked interannual variability. This variability is thought to play a major role in determining overall productivity of the coastal ecosystem by changes to river plume extent, under-ice light conditions and nutrient levels during spring. Extensive field work off the Great Whale River in southeastern Hudson Bay has shown the importance of freshwater discharge, sea ice cover and meteorological forcing on the production of under-ice microalgae and the success of first feeding in fish larvae.Recent global climate model (GCM) results for a doubling of present atmospheric carbon dioxide indicate increases of both air temperature and precipitation in the Hudson Bay area. Predictions based on GCM results are used to estimate future changes to the sea ice and runoff regime. Sea ice breakup in the offshore is predicted to occur about one month earlier than presently. Estimates of the spring freshet in the Great Whale River indicate it will also advance by approximately one month. Onset of the spring freshet will occur about one month before Hudson Bay ice breakup, similar to present. A predicted reduction of about 35% in maximum sea ice thickness will lead to an increase in the ice-ocean interface irradiance and a decrease in melt water input to the Hudson Bay surface waters. These results are used in a discussion of potential effects of global climate change on northern coastal marine environments.     

基于信息熵理论的灰色系统法在岸线评价中的应用

选定岸线前沿水深条件、岸线稳定性、岸线前沿水域宽度以及岸线后方陆域宽度作为岸线评价的主要指标。在确定评价指标的权重时应用了信息熵理论,随后将灰色系统法引入到岸线评价中,利用MATLAB编程计算得出6条岸线的关联度,关联度越大表明岸线与最优岸线越相关,最终得出各岸线与最优岸线的相关性排序,并对评价结果进行了对比分析,对岸线的开发利用提出合理性建议。     

A conceptual model of the strongly tidal Columbia River plume

The Columbia River plume is typical of large-scale, high discharge, mid-latitude plumes. In the absence of strong upwelling winds, freshwater from the river executes a rightward turn and forms an anticyclonic bulge before moving north along the Washington coast. In addition to the above dynamics, however, the river plume outflow is subject to large tides, which modify the structure of the plume in the region near the river mouth. Observations based on data acquired during a summer 2005 cruise indicate that the plume consists of four distinct water masses; source water at the lift-off point, and the tidal, re-circulating and far-field plumes. In contrast to most plume models that describe the discharge of low-salinity estuary water into ambient high-salinity coastal water, we describe the Columbia plume as the superposition of these four plume types.We focus primarily on a conceptual summary of the dynamics and mutual interaction of the tidal and re-circulating plumes. The new tidal plume flows over top of the re-circulating plume and is typically bounded by strong fronts. Soon after the end of ebb tide, it covers roughly 50–100% of the re-circulating plume surface area. The fronts may penetrate well below the re-circulating plume water and eventually spawn internal waves that mix the re-circulating plume further. The re-circulating plume persists throughout the tidal cycle and corresponds to a freshwater volume equivalent to 3–4 days of river discharge. Finally, the plume water masses are distinguished from one another in term of surface chlorophyll concentration, suggesting that the above classification may also describe different biological growth regimes. The low-salinity re-circulating plume serves as an extension of the estuary into the coastal ocean, or an “estuary at sea”, because residence times during periods of high river flow are greater than those in the estuary.     

宁波舟山港岛屿岸线的利用和整治

针对宁波舟山港岛屿岸线利用开发所遇到的问题,总结宁波舟山港选址和建设码头的经验,对宁波舟山地区港口建设码头选址过程中遇到的各类岛屿岸线问题进行分析,提出采用顺流连岛、炸礁清障、导流堤整治水流、避开转流回流段等整治措施,得出宁波舟山港地区码头选址可采用的有效整治利用岸线的方法。认为:宁波舟山港岛屿岸线整治和利用须使得该段岸线前的往复潮流主轴线基本顺直,避免转流和回流岸段。     

温州浅滩围涂工程对港口航道的影响研究

采用波浪、潮流、泥沙数学模型,对瓯江口温州浅滩围涂工程海区的工程前后的波浪场、潮流场、悬沙场、底床冲淤进行了数值模拟研究,对温州浅滩围涂工程对瓯江口港口航道的影响进行了分析论证。研究结果表明,温州浅滩围涂工程不仅对温州港现有港口航道及未来的状元岙深水港区基本没有负面影响,而且有利于航道水深的维护和稳定,可以改善从瓯江北口到黄大岙水道的船舶航行条件。     

台州湾海域水文泥沙环境及海床冲淤演变分析

文章结合台州湾海域历史上各年代、各测次的水文泥沙测验和实测地形资料,对该海区1934~1998年和1988~2003年2个不同时间长度内的地形变化进行了分析,结果表明:台州湾属于强潮海域,具有潮差大、潮汐动力强的特点;该海区在1988年以前处于略有淤积状态,而1988年后期处于冲淤基本平衡的稳定状况;椒江口内高含沙水体的往返运移对湾内水域冲淤变化的影响甚小;造成该海区海床变化的泥沙主要来自于浙江东海岸沿岸泥沙运动,随着来自长江口泥沙的逐年减少,该海域的海床形态基本趋于稳定,海域含沙量逐步降低,为台州市深水港的建设提供了良好的泥沙环境。     

长江口航道疏浚土综合利用及新横沙生态成陆探索

针对长江口新水沙环境和滩涂演变的现状,以及长江口深水航道疏浚土综合利用面临的困境,以生态优先、共抓长江大保护的理念为指导,论述了后续疏浚土综合利用的紧迫性和可行性。从生态环境塑造、滩涂资源保护、长江口河势控制等方面着手,探讨了开展长江口大保护的有关路径和方法。提出了以横沙大道延伸及促淤护滩工程为依托,实现2020年后综合利用长江口深水航道疏浚土在新横沙生态成陆的具体方案。     

Evaluation of manatee habitat systems on the northwestern Florida coast

Abstract

Threats to the survival of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus) vary throughout their range so that protection of this endangered species requires careful planning on a regional and local basis. The importance and vulnerability of various components of manatee habitats in the Crystal River area of northwestern Florida were assessed, using an ordinal‐combination mapping technique similar to procedures practiced in urban and regional planning. Habitat components were mapped and evaluated in juxtaposition with relevant characteristics of human use of the area, to identify areas of existing and potential manatee/human conflicts in need of reconciliation. Areas evaluated as the most important manatee habitats within this region include Crystal Bay and River, Homosassa River, and the Suwannee River estuary. Existing overlap of human activities with important manatee habitats is most critical near the urban communities of Crystal River and, to a lesser degree, Homosassa Springs. The need for integration of this ecological information into coastal land‐use planning is discussed.     

大型挖入式布局的港池设计波要素推算方法

我国沿海发达地区尚未开发的天然建港岸线资源所剩不多,近年来在沿海可以利用的地区已建设或规划多个大型挖入式布局港池。挖入式布局的港池因具有充分利用岸线、掩护条件优越、便于管理等特点,在国内外应用较广。港池设计波要素是码头设计过程中的重要研究参数之一,而目前主流的商业软件MIKE 21 SW波浪模型、MIKE 21 BW波浪模型在对大范围港池的港内波浪场进行计算时各有欠缺。以横沙大型港池为例,比较几种不同波浪推算方法的计算结果,提出了结合MIKE 21 SW、MIKE 21 BW两种波浪模型进行叠加的推算方法。     

长江口深水航道治理工程对潮汐特性的影响

近年来,因长江口上游径流、外海潮汐和河口海洋环境的剧烈变化以及长江口水域河口及海岸工程的大量兴建,特别是规模宏大的长江口深水航道治理工程的建设,可能会导致河口潮汐产生变化。对长江口深水航道工程建设前后长时间序列的11个潮位站潮位资料进行分析,得出长江口近期潮汐特性的变化特征：口外潮汐特性主要受外海潮汐总体变化影响,口内潮汐特性受北槽深水航道治理工程及周边涉水工程建设的影响。